Supra Segmental Features

 Stress- syllables & word stress, sentence stress  Intonation- Falling, rising, rising- falling, falling- rising.

STRESS /stres/ n, v

The pronunciation (See ARTICULATION) of a word or syllable with more force that the surrounding word of syllables. i.e. which it is produced by using more air from the lungs. Syllables may be stressed or unstressed. A listener hears a stressed syllable or word as being louder and/or of longer duration and/or produced with a higher PITCH than the surrounding words or syllables. A syllable may be stressed because; (a) the ACCENT is on that syllable, ex- dismay, ever, confusion. (b) the speaker whishes to emphasize (give PROMINENCE to) the syllable Ex-: I said INduce, not Deduce

Syllables

A syllable must contain a vowel or vowel-like sound, including diphthongs. The most common type of syllable in language also has a consonant (C) before the vowel (V) and is typically represented as CV. Technically, the basic elements of the syllable are the onset (one or more consonants) followed by the rhyme. The rhyme (sometimes written as “rime”) consists of a vowel, which is treated as the nucleus, plus any following consonant(s), described as the coda. Syllables like me, to or no have an onset and a nucleus, but no coda. They are known as open syllables. When a coda is present, as in the syllables up, cup, at or hat, they are called closed syllables. The basic structure of the kind of syllable found in English words like green (CCVC), eggs (VCC), and (VCC), ham (CVC), I (V), do (CV), not (CVC), like (CVC), them (CVC), Sam (CVC), I (V), am (VC) is shown in the accompanying diagram.

Consonant clusters

Both the onset and the coda can consist of more than one consonant, also known as a consonant cluster. The combination /st/ is a consonant cluster (CC) used as onset in the word stop, and as coda in the word post. There are many CC onset combinations permitted in English phonotactics, as in black, bread, trick, twin, flat and throw. Note that liquids (/l/, /r/) and a glide (/w/) are being used in second position. English can actually have larger onset clusters, as in the words stress and splat, consisting of three initial consonants (CCC). The Phonotactics of these larger onset consonant clusters is not too difficult to describe. The first consonant must always be /s/, followed by one of the voiceless stops (/p/, /t/, /k/) and a liquid or glide (/l/, /r/, /w/). You can check if this description is adequate for the combinations in splash, spring, strong, scream and square. Does the description also cover the second syllable in the pronunciation of exclaim? How about /ɛk-skleɪm/? Remember that it is the onset of the syllable that is being described, not the beginning of the word. It is quite unusual for languages to have consonant clusters of this type. Indeed, the syllable structure of many languages (e.g. Japanese) is predominantly CV. It is also noticeable in English that large consonant clusters may be reduced in casual conversational speech, particularly if they occur in the middle of a word. This is just one example of a process that is usually discussed in terms of co articulation effects.

The Syllable

All words can be divided into one or more syllables. The syllable is important in the rhythm of the language. A syllable typically contains a consonant or set of consonants followed by vowel followed by another consonant or set of consonants. Words with one syllable (cat, springs) are monosyllabic, while words with more than one syllable are polysyllabic. The nature of the syllable. Syllable are usually described as consisting of a centre (nucleus) which has little or no obstruction to airflow and which sounds comparatively loud ; before and after the centre. (That is , at the beginning and end of the syllable)

Minimum syllable – a single vowel in isolation

ex – the words are /aː/ , or /ɔː/, err /ɜː/ These are preceded and followed by silence.

Some syllables have an onset (that is they have more than just silence preceding the centre of the syllable)

ex- bar /baː/ , Key /kiː/, more /mɔː/

Syllables may have no onset but have termination.

Ex- am - /æm / ought ɔːt / ease iːz /

Some syllables have onset and termination

Ex- rum /rʌm /, sat /sæt / fill /fɪl/

INTONATION

The sound pattern of phrase and sentences produced by pitch variation in the voice to distinguish between question, statements and other types of utterance is known as Intonation. Pitch of the voice plays the most important part, when we speak normally; the pitch of our voice is constantly changing. In some respects, its function is similar to the use of punctuation in writing, but it is far more complex than punctuation. Would you like whisky or gin or tea? Would you like whisky or gin or tea…? The use of the dots indicates that the list of drinks could be extended; whereas in the first sentence there are three to choose from. In speech the difference is made by intonation. Some functions of English tones  Fall yes, no (Neutral) If someone is asked a question and replies yes or no, it will be understood that the question s now answered and that there is nothing more to be said. That fall could be said to give an impression of „finality‟.  Rise yes, no In a variety of ways, this tone conveys an impression that something more is to follow.  Fall-rise yes, no Te fall-rise is used a lot in English and has some rather special functions- „limited agreement‟ or „response with reservation.‟  Rise- fall yes, no This is used to convey rather strong feelings of approval, disapproval or surprise.  Level yes, no This tone is certainly used in English, but in a rather restricted context; it almost always coveys (on single syllable utterances) a feeling of saying something routine, uninteresting or boring, A teacher calling names of pupils from a register will often do so using a level of tone on each name, and the pupils would be likely to be responded with the same tone. Check the examples below, you‟ll notice that there‟s a predictable change of pitch before the marked pauses. Technically, the tone unit consists of prominent stress (its „nucleus‟). It is here that there is a change in pitch. The tone unit may also have a „‟head and a „tail‟.