Prepositions in English with Tamil & Sinhala Meanings | Rules & Examples

PREPOSITIONS A preposition is a word that shows the relationship between a word in the sentence and the word that is the object of the preposition.

Prepositions of place (at, in, on, to, from)

Examples ▪ He is at hospital. ▪ They are in the garden. ▪ I am going to school. ▪ He is coming from Colombo. 02.Prepositions of time (in, within, at, on, by, during) Examples ▪ You must come in time. ▪ She came on time. ▪ They did it within one week. ▪ Please come at 6.30. ▪ All have to be at the conference by 8 a.m. ▪ We went on a trip during the vacation. 03.Prepositions of cause (for, over,) Examples ▪ She blamed me for no reason. ▪ They quarreled over a trivial matter. 04.Prepositions of instrument (by, with, without) Examples ▪ He handed me the letter by hand. ▪ He cut the tree with a knife. ▪ They were left without shelter.

Prepositions of reference (on, between, among)

Examples ▪ He is the person on the wall. ▪ My father is the one between the two pillars. ▪ The moon is among the stars. Prepositions usually stand in front of nouns and gerunds. 1 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ Prepositions — time English Usage Example on ▪ days of the week ▪ on Monday in ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ months / seasons ▪ time of day ▪ year ▪ after a certain period of time (when?) ▪ in August / in winter in the morning in 2006 in an hour at ▪ ▪ ▪ for night ▪ for weekend ▪ a certain point of time (when?) ▪ at night at the weekend at half past nine since ▪ from a certain point of time (past till now) ▪ since 1980 for ▪ over a certain period of time (past till now) ▪ for 2 years ago ▪ a certain time in the past ▪ 2 years ago before ▪ earlier than a certain point of time ▪ before 2004 to ▪ telling the time ▪ ten to six (5:50) past ▪ telling the time ▪ ten past six (6:10) to / till / until ▪ marking the beginning and end of a period of time ▪ from Monday to/till Friday till / until ▪ in the sense of how long something is going to last ▪ He is on holiday until Friday. by ▪ ▪ in the sense of at the latest ▪ up to a certain time ▪ I will be back by 6 o‘clock. By 11 o'clock, I had read five pages. ⮚ Prepositions — position and direction English Usage Example in ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ room, building, street, town, country ▪ book, paper etc. ▪ car, taxi ▪ picture, world ▪ in the kitchen, in London in the book in the car, in a taxi in the picture, in the world at ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ meaning next to, by an object ▪ for table ▪ for events ▪ place where you are to do something typical ▪ (watch a film, study, work) at the door, at the station at the table at a concert, at the party at the cinema, at school, at work on ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ attached ▪ for a place with a river ▪ being on a surface ▪ for a certain side (left, right) ▪ for a floor in a house ▪ for public transport ▪ for television, radio ▪ ▪ the picture on the wall London lies on the Thames. on the table on the left on the first floor on the bus, on a plane on TV, on the radio by, next to, ▪ beside left or right of somebody or something ▪ ▪ Jane is standing by / next to / beside the car. under ▪ on the ground, lower than (or covered by) ▪ something else the bag is under the table 2 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya below ▪ lower than something else but above ground ▪ ▪ the fish are below the surface over ▪ ▪ ▪ ▪ covered by something else ▪ meaning more than ▪ getting to the other side (also across) ▪ overcoming an obstacle ▪ ▪ put a jacket over your shirt over 16 years of age walk over the bridge climb over the wall above ▪ higher than something else, but not directly ▪ over it a path above the lake across ▪ ▪ getting to the other side (also over) ▪ getting to the other side ▪ ▪ walk across the bridge swim across the lake through ▪ something with limits on top, bottom and the ▪ sides drive through the tunnel to ▪ ▪ ▪ movement to person or building ▪ movement to a place or country ▪ for bed ▪ ▪ go to the cinema go to London / Ireland go to bed into ▪ enter a room / a building ▪ ▪ go into the kitchen / the house towards ▪ ▪ movement in the direction of something (but ▪ not directly to it) go 5 steps towards the house onto ▪ ▪ movement to the top of something ▪ jump onto the table from ▪ in the sense of where from ▪ ▪ a flower from the garden ⮚ Other important Prepositions English Usage Example from ▪ ▪ who gave it ▪ a present from Jane of ▪ ▪ ▪ who/what does it belong to ▪ what does it show ▪ a page of the book the picture of a palace by ▪ ▪ who made it ▪ a book by Mark Twain on ▪ ▪ ▪ walking or riding on horseback ▪ entering a public transport vehicle ▪ on foot, on horseback get on the bus in ▪ ▪ entering a car / Taxi ▪ get in the car off ▪ ▪ leaving a public transport vehicle ▪ get off the train out of ▪ ▪ leaving a car / Taxi ▪ get out of the taxi by ▪ ▪ ▪ rise or fall of something ▪ travelling (other than walking or horse riding) ▪ prices have risen by 10 percent by car, by bus at ▪ ▪ for age ▪ she learned Russian at 45 about ▪ ▪ for topics, meaning what about ▪ we were talking about you 3 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Some prepositions have different meanings according to their context.

a teller of jokes • of = produces

a book of recipes • of = contains

a book of Dad's • of = belongs to

Some words demand particular prepositions, which are fairly arbitrary.

depend on • cope with • tired of • long for • reason for • angry at • live on • marriage to • battle against or with • trouble with • bored with • averse to

Exercise-01

Choose the right preposition of place:

…(i)… the picture, I can see a family …(ii)….. a

kitchen.

There is a dish full of fruits …(iii).. the worktop.

The mother is standing ………(iv)……. her son

and daughter.

She is holding a vase……(v)….. her hand.

The son and the daughter are sitting …(vi)…. the

worktop smiling ……(vii)…… each other.

There are beautiful cupboards (viii)…… the wall.

There is a window ………(ix)……. the mother.

The woman is looking ………(x)….. her daughter.

Answers Exercise 01 (i) In (ii) in (iii) on (iv) of (v) in (vi) at (vii) at (viii) on (ix) behind (x) at Exercise-02

Choose the right preposition of time:

What are you doing ……(i)…….. Saturday?

I am going to the countryside ……(ii)……..the weekend.

I haven't been to the countryside ……(iii)……..

What time are you leaving?

I am leaving ………(iv)…..the afternoon. May be …(v)………..three o'clock pm. I am coming back …(vi)………..Sunday evening. I'll catch the half …(vii) …..seven train …(viii)……..Sunday. I'll be here ……(ix)…..nine o'clock.

So you'll be there ………(x)…..the whole weekend. I'll be missing you!

Answers Exercise 02 (i) on (ii) on / at (iii) since (iv) in (v) at (vi) on (vii) past (viii) on (ix) by (x) for 4 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Exercise-03 For each question, choose the single best answer

My best friend lives.......(in/on/at) Hill Road.

I'll be ready to leave ....... (in/on/at) about twenty minutes.

Since he met his new girlfriend, Juan never seems to be....... (in/on/at) home. 4. The child responded to his mother's demands......(with/by/from) throwing a tantrum. 5. I think she spent the entire afternoon....... (in/on/at) the phone.

I will wait....... (from/at/until) 6:30, but then I'm going home.

The police caught the thief....... (in/from/at) the corner of Cascade and Plum Streets. 8. My fingers were injured so my sister had to write the note......(for/with/to).me. 9. I am not interested.......(to/for/in) buying a new car now.

What are the main ingredients.......(about/to/of) this casserole ?

My best friend, John, is named.......(after/to/about) his great-grandfather. 12. Grandpa stayed up.......(since/for/until) two in the morning.

My parents have been married....... (since/for/until) forty-nine years. 14. He usually travels to Colombo....... (by/at/with) train.

You frequently see this kind of violence.......(with/in/on) television. 16. I told Mom we'd be home......(to/in/at) an hour or so.

I was visiting my best friend.......(of/at/in) the hospital.

The professor.....(from/of/in) South Africa amazed the American students with her stories. 19. I'll see you.......(in/by/at)home when I get there.

It's been snowing.......(since/for/until) Christmas morning.

Answers Exercise 03

on 2. in 3. at 4. by 5. on

until 7. at 8. for 9. in 10. of

after 12. until 13. for 14. by 15. on

in 17. in 18. from 19. at 20. since

Exercise-04 Complete the following sentences using appropriate prepositions.

He went ……… the market.

He lives …………a small town.

I met him …………the afternoon.

He took something …………the drawer.

He put the books …………the table.

He fell …………… the ladder and broke his leg.

Let us hope …………the best.

There is someone ………the door.

There is a mistake …………the third line.

I was born …………Ratnapura.

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Soumya is the best girl ………the class.

Sri Lankans celebrate Independence Day ……the 4th of February. 13. This table is made …………wood.

I live …………the sea.

There is something ………the curtain.

I was part ………the team that won the championship.

Answers Exercise 04

to 2. in 3. in 4. from

on 6. from 7. for 8. at

in 10. in 11. In 12. on

of 14. near 15. behind 16. of

Exercise-05 Fill in the blanks with appropriate prepositions. Choose your answers from the options given in the brackets.

This material is different …………………… that. (from / to / with) 2. You should explain this …………………… them. (to / at / with)

He has been absent ………………… Monday. (since /for / from)

I haven‘t been to the theatre ………………… a long time. (since / for /from) 5. He goes ……………….. school by car. (to / at / on)

This is a comfortable house to live ……………… (on / at / in)

They are called …………………. different names. (by / with / for)

We should not spend money ………………. luxuries. (for / on / with) 9. I gave him a chair to sit ………………. (on / at / in)

The new term begins …………………. June 1st. (on / in / from)

He poured the tea ………………….. the mug. (into / on / in)

He said that he was very pleased ……………………. my work. (with / on / at) Answers Exercise 05

from 2. to 3. since 4. for

by 6. In 7. by 8. on

on 10. on 11. into 12. with

Exercise-06

Fill in the appropriate prepositions:

Peter is playing tennis _________ Sunday.

My brother‘s birthday is _________ the 5th November.

My birthday is ____________May.

We are going to see my Parents __________ the weekend.

______ 1966 , a great fire broke out in London.

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I don‘t like walking alone in the streets ______ night.

What are you doing ________ the afternoon.

My friend has been living in Canada ________ two years.

I have been waiting for you ____________ seven. o‘ clock.

I will have finished this essay ___________ Friday.

Answers Exercise 06 (i) on (ii) on (iii) in (iv) at (v) in (vi) at (vii) in (viii) for (ix) since (x) by Exercise-07

Fill in the appropriate prepositions:

01.He was punished .............. the magistrate.

She went .............. many difficulties.

Is she employed .............. hospital?

The fishermen are .............. sea.

The man climbed .............. the mountain.

The acrobat somersaulted .............. the wall.

Many foreigners to Sri Lanka come .............. china.

Nothing can be done................ these circumstances.

She lives far .............. our house.

He is vacillating .............. two decisions.

Answers Exercise 07 (i) by (ii) through (iii) at (iv) at (v) up (vi) over (vii) from (viii) under (ix) from (x) between PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE What is a prepositional phrase? A prepositional phrase is a noun phrase beginning with a preposition or any other phrase including a preposition. Ex-: on the table, near the wall, under the tree, angry at, fond of STRUCTURE OF THE PREPOSITIONAL PHRASE ⮚ Preposition + noun phrase Ex: ▪ The children are in the garden. in: preposition the garden: noun phrase ▪ Mother is waiting at the gate. 7 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ Preposition + WH-clause Ex: ▪ He gave me instructions on how to operate the machine. ▪ I didn‘t know from where he came. ⮚ Preposition + ING- phrase Ex: ▪ He managed to solve the problem by discussing with the other party. ▪ She succeeded in getting her promotion. ❖ A prepositional phrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun. Examples. ▪ A boy on the roof is singing asong. (As adjective) ▪ The man in the room is our teacher. (As adjective) ▪ She is shouting in a loud voice. (As adverb) ▪ He always behaves in a good manner. (As adverb) Commonly used prepositional phrases ▪ according to the weather forecast ▪ across many deserts ▪ after many tries ▪ amid the confusion ▪ around the world ▪ any more ▪ before we start the meeting ▪ by the light of the moon ▪ like a beautiful swan ▪ near the ocean ▪ of my boss ▪ off the top Functions of Prepositional Phrases ▪ out the door ▪ through the looking glass ▪ throughout the thick forest ▪ down the mountain ▪ up the hill ▪ into the woods ▪ within the book‘s pages ▪ in spite of ▪ instead of ▪ on account of ▪ to the fact that ▪ because of There are ten main functions of prepositions and prepositional phrases.

Head of the prepositional phrase 02. Noun phrase modifier

Noun phrase complement 04. Adjective phrase modifier 05. Adjective phrase complement

Verb phrase modifier 07. Verb phrase complement 08. Adjunct

Adverbial

Particle

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Head of prepositional phrase

Prepositional phrases have a preposition as the head of the phrase. Ex-

fond of • keen on • angry with • at the desk • in the morning

Noun phrase modifier

Prepositional phrases function as noun phrase modifiers. Ex- ▪ The little girl with blonde hair With blonde hair modifies the noun phrase the little girl in the phrase by describing what color hair the little girl has. More examples ▪ The book with the tattered cover has been read many times. ▪ All the passengers aboard the runaway train were frightened. ▪ The present inside the big box is mine. ▪ The clues within the first few chapters will lead to the murderer. ▪ His is only one voice among many, but it will be heard. ▪ The extra blanket is in the box under the bed. ▪ Sam, unlike many others, will remain there. ▪ The car beside the red one is the one | want to buy. ▪ The area outside the boundary is dangerous to cross. ▪ All rooms below deck are for sleeping. ▪ Tell me the story about the dragon slayer. ▪ Neela is the girl in the red dress. ▪ We‘ve got a new television with a thirty one inch screen.

Noun phrase complement

Prepositional phrases function as complements of noun phrases.

Ex-:

▪ He is the writer of the article. The main difference between modifiers and complements is that modifiers are optional and can be replaced by any number of other prepositional phrases while complements are often required.

Adjective phrase modifier

Prepositional phrases function as modifiers of adjective phrases.

Ex-:

▪ The paint was green on the walls. ▪ The floor was wet near the bathtub.

Prepositional phrases as adjective phrase complements

The prepositional phrase functions as adjective phrase complement. Ex- ▪ I feel sorry for you. ▪ Librarians are fond of books. The prepositional phrase of books is a complement because the adjective fond requires a prepositional phrase to complete its meaning. 9 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya More examples ▪ My wife is worried about our financial situation. ▪ This restaurant is famous for its food. ▪ Many little girls are fond of playing with dolls. ▪ His neighbor is guilty of breaking his glass window. ▪ I was disappointed with the service. ▪ He should be happy about my success.

Verb phrase modifier

Prepositional phrases function as verb phrase modifiers. Ex- ▪ He ran to the school in a hurry. ▪ Do it without delay. More examples ▪ The lion was killed by the hunter. ▪ I saw a wonderful painting by Susil. ▪ We gave five pounds to the woman on the corner. ▪ They got a drink for me.

Verb phrase complement

Prepositional phrases function as complements of verb phrases. Ex- ▪ The woman relies on her babysitter. ▪ On her babysitter functions as the complement of the verb phrase the woman relies on. More examples ▪ The book belongs to me. ▪ He threw a stone at the mango. ▪ The child boasted about her accomplishments. ▪ Dinner consists of soup and biscuits. ▪ All citizens must fight for equality for all. ▪ You should hope for the best but plan for the worst. ▪ Our neighbors listen to terrible music. ▪ He can rely on me.

Adjunct adverbial

Prepositional phrases function as adjuncts. An adjunct is a type of adverbial that gives extra or optional information. Ex- ▪ Yesterday, I met her at the library. ▪ She spoke loudly to the vendor. The above two sentences do not lose their meaning even if the adjuncts are omitted. (I met her at the library and She spoke loudly still make sense.) More examples ▪ I will call you tomorrow. ▪ I have almost completely forgotten to take my passport. ▪ We will be back in a few days. ▪ Until today, I had never heard that. 10 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ▪ Despite warnings, she tried to swim in the deep sea. ▪ In spite of my advice, she bought that old house. ▪ The tiger crept slowly over the grass. ▪ We will order pizza during halftime. ▪ In my opinion, grammar is interesting. ▪ According to the reports, there is some progress in education. ▪ At least he should know what is wrong and what is right. ▪ In comparison to western countries, Asian countries are backwards.

Adverbial

Prepositional phrases function as adverbials. An adverbial is an adverb, a phrase or a clause that modifies a verb. Its function is to change or add to the meaning of the verb. Ex In the backyard ▪ The children played in the backyard. More examples ▪ I met her at the library. ▪ She spoke loudly. ▪ Mother is in the kitchen. ▪ They drove to Galle. ▪ My shopping list needs to be put into my purse. ▪ The balloon drifted up the stairs. ▪ Put the fresh flowers upon a high shelf. ▪ I love to take my jeep off the road.

Adverbial Particle

Finally, prepositions function as particles in phrasal verbs. Phrasal verbs are verbs that consist of a verb and one or more prepositions. The function of the preposition in a phrasal verb is called a particle. Ex- ▪ wake up[awake] More examples ▪ pass out meaning [faint] ▪ look up[consult] Prepositions also function as particles in complex quantifiers. Ex – ▪ all of ▪ none of Exercise Underline the prepositional phrases.

Shall we go to the cinema on Sunday?

He graduated from Oxford in 1985.

I must get up early in the morning.

The shops open at nine.

She has never seen the sea in winter.

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I am going to meet her on Wednesday. 7. Let's have a break at noon.

They moved here in October.

It happened at half past seven.

Is the match on Saturday afternoon? 11. We were at the cinema at 6 p.m. yesterday. 12. My next English lesson is on Friday. 13. The concert started on July 7th.

The bus leaves at 8.45 p.m.

We eat lunch at noon.

He likes watching TV in the evening. 17. I went to bed at midnight.

What do you usually do in the evening? 19. We finished the game late at night. 20. I go on holidays in summer

Answers

on Sunday

in 1985.

in the morning.

at nine.

in winter.

PHRASAL VERBS

on Wednesday. 7. at noon.

in October.

at half past seven.

on Saturday afternoon?

at 6 p.m. yesterday.

on Friday. 13. on July 7th. 14. at 8.45 p.m. 15. at noon.

in the evening. 17. at midnight. 18. in the evening? 19. at night.

in summer.

What are phrasal verbs? Phrasal verbs consist of a verb and a preposition or an adverb. They are generally used in spoken English and informal texts. Ex- turn down, come across, run into Formation: verb + adverbial particle Ex: ▪ grow +up The children are growing up. ▪ take + after She takes after her mother = She looks like her mother, or She behaves like her mother. ▪ count + on I know I can count on you =I know I can trust you. 12 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Literal Meaning The phrasal verb ‗put up' here does means to build. ▪ I put up a fence around the garden. Idiomatic Meaning ▪ Can you put me up for tonight? The phrasal verb ‗put up' here does not mean to build (as in put up a fence). It means to let someone stay in your house. Types of Phrasal Verbs

In some phrasal verbs the tail is essential.

▪ look at ▪ aim at ▪ participate in ▪ interfere in/with

Some phrasal verbs retain the meanings of the verb and the adverb particle.

▪ sit down ▪ stand up ▪ come in ▪ go out

In other phrasal verbs the meaning changes when the tail is added.

▪ I ran into my teacher at the movies last night. o run into = meet ▪ He ran away when he was 15. o run away = leave home o give in surrender o turn up =arrive, appear

Some phrasal verbs are Transitive.

▪ I made up the story. "Story" is the object of "make up" With most of them, the adverb can either come before or follow a noun object. ▪ They turned on the light. ▪ They turned the light on. 13 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ∙ Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. The object is placed between the verb and the preposition. ▪ Turn the volume down. ▪ He made up his mind to leave the job. ∙ Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. The object is placed after the preposition. ▪ I ran into an old friend yesterday. ▪ I came across some old photos in a drawer. ▪ They are looking into the problem.

Some phrasal verbs are intransitive.

▪ Drink up quickly. ∙ An intransitive verb cannot be followed by an object. ▪ He suddenly showed up. (appeared) "Show up" cannot take an object. ∙ If the object is a pronoun, the preposition/adverb has to be placed after the pronoun. ▪ She made it up. ▪ Put it down. ▪ Take it off.

Note:

∙ I looked the number up in the phone book. -incorrect ∙ I looked up the number in the phone book. -correct ∙ I looked up it in the phone book. -incorrect ∙ I looked it up in the phone book. —correct ⮚ Some phrasal verbs consist of two elements. Verb Preposition/adverb get up go through write down take after 14 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ Some phrasal verbs consist of three elements. Verb Preposition / adverb 1 Preposition / adverb 2 look forward to put up with sit in for ⮚ When added to the verb the preposition or adverb may change completely the meaning of the verb. Phrasal verb Meaning Example look for search/seek He is looking for his keys look up to have a great deal of respect for a person His father is his model. He is the person he looks up to. look forward to await eagerly/anticipate with pleasure She is looking forward to visiting Paris. look up

to try to find a piece of information by looking in a book or on a computer:

She didn't understand the word. So she looked it up in her dictionary More examples for phrasal verbs ▪ Ella tore up the letter after she read it. ▪ Their car broke down two miles out of town. ▪ Did the manager deal with that customer‘s complaint. ▪ Be sure to put on a life jacket before getting into the boat. ▪ We left out the trash for pickup. ▪ It‘s time to get on the plane. ▪ What will she think up next? ▪ I‘m having some trouble working out the solution to this equation. ▪ We‘re going to have to put off our vacation until next year. ▪ Stand up when speaking in class, please. ▪ We‘ll have to wake up early if we want breakfast. ▪ Take off your shoes before you walk on the carpet. ▪ My dog likes to break out of his kennel to chase squirrels. ▪ Someone broke into my car last night and stole the stereo. ▪ Will you be able to get by this month with the little you have? ▪ His father always taught him not to look down on those people with less ▪ Stop complaining and get on with your work! ▪ The boss wants you to hand in your figures for this month to him. 15 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Phrasal Verbs List 200 common phrasal verbs, with meanings and example sentences phrasal verb meaning example sentence ask somebody out invite on a date Brian asked Judy out to dinner and a movie. ask around ask many people the same question I asked around but nobody has seen my wallet. add up to something equal Your purchases add up to $205.32. back something up reverse You'll have to back up your car so that I can get out. back somebody up support My wife backed me up over my decision to quit my job. blow up explode The racing car blew up after it crashed into the fence. blow something up add air We have to blow 50 balloons up for the party. break down stop functioning (vehicle, machine) Our car broke down at the side of the highway in the snowstorm. break down get upset The woman broke down when the police told her that her son had died. break something down divide into smaller parts Our teacher broke the final project down into three separate parts. break in force entry to a building Somebody broke in last night and stole our stereo. break into something enter forcibly The firemen had to break into the room to rescue the children. break something in wear something a few times so that it doesn't look/feel new I need to break these shoes in before we run next week. break in interrupt The TV station broke in to report the news of the president's death. break up end a relationship My boyfriend and I broke up before I moved to America. break up start laughing (informal) The kids just broke up as soon as the clown started talking. break out escape The prisoners broke out of jail when the guards weren't looking. break out in something develop a skin condition I broke out in a rash after our camping trip. bring somebody down make unhappy This sad music is bringing me down. bring somebody up raise a child My grandparents brought me up after my parents died. bring something up start talking about a subject My mother walks out of the room when my father brings up sports. bring something up vomit He drank so much that he brought his dinner up in the toilet. call around phone many different places/people We called around but we weren't able to find the car part we needed. call somebody back return a phone call I called the company back but the offices were closed for the weekend. call something off cancel Jason called the wedding off because he wasn't in love with his fiancé. call on somebody ask for an answer or opinion The professor called on me for question 1. 16 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya call on somebody visit somebody We called on you last night but you weren't home. call somebody up phone Give me your phone number and I will call you up when we are in town. calm down relax after being angry You are still mad. You need to calm down before you drive the car. not care for somebody/ something not like (formal) I don't care for his behaviour. catch up get to the same point as somebody else You'll have to run faster than that if you want to catch up with Marty. check in arrive and register at a hotel or airport We will get the hotel keys when we check in. check out leave a hotel You have to check out of the hotel before 11:00 AM. check somebody/ something out look at carefully, investigate The company checks out all new employees. check out somebody/ something look at (informal) Check out the crazy hair on that guy! cheer up become happier She cheered up when she heard the good news. cheer somebody up make happier I brought you some flowers to cheer you up. chip in help If everyone chips in we can get the kitchen painted by noon. clean something up tidy, clean Please clean up your bedroom before you go outside. come across something find unexpectedly I came across these old photos when I was tidying the closet. come apart separate The top and bottom come apart if you pull hard enough. come down with something become sick My nephew came down with chicken pox this weekend. come forward volunteer for a task or to give evidence The woman came forward with her husband's finger prints. come from some place originate in The art of origami comes from Asia. count on somebody/ something rely on I am counting on you to make dinner while I am out. cross something out draw a line through Please cross out your old address and write your new one. cut back on something consume less My doctor wants me to cut back on sweets and fatty foods. cut something down make something fall to the ground We had to cut the old tree in our yard down after the storm. cut in interrupt Your father cut in while I was dancing with your uncle. cut in pull in too closely in front of another vehicle The bus driver got angry when that car cut in. cut in start operating (of an engine or electrical device) The air conditioner cuts in when the temperature gets to 22°C. cut something off remove with something sharp The doctors cut off his leg because it was severely injured. 17 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya cut something off stop providing The phone company cut off our phone because we didn't pay the bill. cut somebody off take out of a will My grandparents cut my father off when he remarried. cut something out remove part of something (usually with scissors and paper) I cut this ad out of the newspaper. do somebody/ something over beat up, ransack (BrE, informal) He's lucky to be alive. His shop was done over by a street gang. do something over do again (AmE) My teacher wants me to do my essay over because she doesn't like my topic. do away with something discard It's time to do away with all of these old tax records. do something up fasten, close Do your coat up before you go outside. It's snowing! dress up wear nice clothing It's a fancy restaurant so we have to dress up. drop back move back in a position/group Andrea dropped back to third place when she fell off her bike. drop in/ by/ over come without an appointment I might drop in/by/over for tea sometime this week. drop somebody/ something off take somebody/ something somewhere and leave them/it there I have to drop my sister off at work before I come over. drop out quit a class, school etc I dropped out of Science because it was too difficult. eat out eat at a restaurant I don't feel like cooking tonight. Let's eat out. end up eventually reach/do/decide We ended up renting a movie instead of going to the theatre. fall apart break into pieces My new dress fell apart in the washing machine. fall down fall to the ground The picture that you hung up last night fell down this morning. fall out separate from an interior The money must have fallen out of my pocket. fall out (of hair, teeth) become loose and unattached His hair started to fall out when he was only 35. figure something out understand, find the answer I need to figure out how to fit the piano and the bookshelf in this room. fill something in to write information in blanks, as on a form (BrE) Please fill in the form with your name, address, and phone number. fill something out to write information in blanks, as on a form (AmE) The form must be filled out in capital letters. fill something up fill to the top I always fill the water jug up when it is empty. find out discover We don't know where he lives. How can we find out? find something out discover We tried to keep the time of the party a secret, but Samantha found it out. get something across/ over communicate, make understandable I tried to get my point across/over to the judge but she wouldn't listen. get along/on like each other I was surprised how well my new girlfriend and my sister got along/on. 18 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya get around have mobility My grandfather can get around fine in his new wheelchair. get away go on a vacation We worked so hard this year that we had to get away for a week. get away with something do without being noticed or punished Jason always gets away with cheating in his maths tests. get back return We got back from our vacation last week. get something back receive something you had before Liz finally got her Science notes back from my room-mate. get back at somebody retaliate, take revenge My sister got back at me for stealing her shoes. She stole my favourite hat. get back into something become interested in something again I finally got back into my novel and finished it. get on something step onto a vehicle We're going to freeze out here if you don't let us get on the bus. get over something recover from an illness, loss, difficulty I just got over the flu and now my sister has it. get over something overcome a problem The company will have to close if it can't get over the new regulations. get round to something finally find time to do (AmE: get around to something) I don't know when I am going to get round to writing the thank you cards. get together meet (usually for social reasons) Let's get together for a BBQ this weekend. get up get out of bed I got up early today to study for my exam. get up stand You should get up and give the elderly man your seat. give somebody away reveal hidden information about somebody His wife gave him away to the police. give somebody away take the bride to the altar My father gave me away at my wedding. give something away ruin a secret My little sister gave the surprise party away by accident. give something away give something to somebody for free The library was giving away old books on Friday. give something back return a borrowed item I have to give these skates back to Franz before his hockey game. give in reluctantly stop fighting or arguing My boyfriend didn't want to go to the ballet, but he finally gave in. give something out give to many people (usually at no cost) They were giving out free perfume samples at the department store. give something up quit a habit I am giving up smoking as of January 1st. give up stop trying My math homework was too difficult so I gave up. go after somebody follow somebody My brother tried to go after the thief in his car. go after something try to achieve something I went after my dream and now I am a published writer. go against somebody compete, oppose We are going against the best soccer team in the city tonight. go ahead start, proceed Please go ahead and eat before the food gets cold. go back return to a place I have to go back home and get my lunch. 19 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya go out leave home to go on a social event We're going out for dinner tonight. go out with somebody date Jesse has been going out with Luke since they met last winter. go over something review Please go over your answers before you submit your test. go over visit somebody nearby I haven't seen Tina for a long time. I think I'll go over for an hour or two. go without something suffer lack or deprivation When I was young, we went without winter boots. grow apart stop being friends over time My best friend and I grew apart after she changed schools. grow back regrow My roses grew back this summer. grow into something grow big enough to fit This bike is too big for him now, but he should grow into it by next year. grow out of something get too big for Elizabeth needs a new pair of shoes because she has grown out of her old ones. grow up become an adult When Jack grows up he wants to be a fireman. hand something down give something used to somebody else I handed my old comic books down to my little cousin. hand something in submit I have to hand in my essay by Friday. hand something out to distribute to a group of people We will hand out the invitations at the door. hand something over give (usually unwillingly) The police asked the man to hand over his wallet and his weapons. hang in stay positive (informal) Hang in there. I'm sure you'll find a job very soon. hang on wait a short time (informal) Hang on while I grab my coat and shoes! hang out spend time relaxing (informal) Instead of going to the party we are just going to hang out at my place. hang up end a phone call He didn't say goodbye before he hung up. hold somebody/ something back prevent from doing/going I had to hold my dog back because there was a cat in the park. hold something back hide an emotion Jamie held back his tears at his grandfather's funeral. hold on wait a short time Please hold on while I transfer you to the Sales Department. hold onto somebody/ something hold firmly using your hands or arms Hold onto your hat because it's very windy outside. hold somebody/ something up rob A man in a black mask held the bank up this morning. keep on doing something continue doing Keep on stirring until the liquid comes to a boil. keep something from s omebody not tell We kept our relationship from our parents for two years. keep somebody/ something out stop from entering Try to keep the wet dog out of the living room. keep something up continue at the same rate If you keep those results up you will get into a great college. let somebody down fail to support or help, disappoint I need you to be on time. 20 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Don't let me down this time. let somebody in allow to enter Can you let the cat in before you go to school? log in (or on) sign in (to a website, database etc) I can't log in to Facebook because I've forgotten my password. log out (or off) sign out (of a website, database etc) If you don't log off somebody could get into your account. look after somebody/ something take care of I have to look after my sick grandmother. look down on somebody think less of, consider inferior Ever since we stole that chocolate bar your dad has looked down on me. look for somebody/ something try to find I'm looking for a red dress for the wedding. look forward to something be excited about the future I'm looking forward to the Christmas break. look into something investigate We are going to look into the price of snowboards today. look out be careful, vigilant, and take notice Look out! That car's going to hit you! look out for somebody/ something be especially vigilant for Don't forget to look out for snakes on the hiking trail. look something over check, examine Can you look over my essay for spelling mistakes? look something up search and find information in a reference book or database We can look her phone number up on the Internet. look up to somebody have a lot of respect for My little sister has always looked up to me. make something up invent, lie about something Josie made up a story about why we were late. make up forgive each other We were angry last night, but we made up at breakfast. make somebody up apply cosmetics to My sisters made me up for my graduation party. mix something up confuse two or more things I mixed up the twins' names again! pass away die His uncle passed away last night after a long illness. pass out faint It was so hot in the church that an elderly lady passed out. pass something out give the same thing to many people The professor passed the textbooks out before class. pass something up decline (usually something good) I passed up the job because I am afraid of change. pay somebody back return owed money Thanks for buying my ticket. I'll pay you back on Friday. pay for something be punished for doing something bad That bully will pay for being mean to my little brother. pick something out choose I picked out three sweaters for you to try on. point somebody/ something out indicate with your finger I'll point my boyfriend out when he runs by. put something down put what you are holding on a surface or floor You can put the groceries down on the kitchen counter. 21 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya put somebody down insult, make somebody feel stupid The students put the substitute teacher down because his pants were too short. put something off postpone We are putting off our trip until January because of the hurricane. put something out extinguish The neighbours put the fire out before the firemen arrived. put something together assemble I have to put the crib together before the baby arrives. put up with somebody/ something tolerate I don't think I can put up with three small children in the car. put something on put clothing/ accessories on your body Don't forget to put on your new earrings for the party. run into somebody/ something meet unexpectedly I ran into an old school-friend at the mall. run over somebody/ something drive a vehicle over a person or thing I accidentally ran over your bicycle in the driveway. run over/ through something rehearse, review Let's run over/through these lines one more time before the show. run away leave unexpectedly, escape The child ran away from home and has been missing for three days. run out have none left We ran out of shampoo so I had to wash my hair with soap. send something back return (usually by mail) My letter got sent back to me because I used the wrong stamp. set something up arrange, organize Our boss set a meeting up with the president of the company. set somebody up trick, trap The police set up the car thief by using a hidden camera. shop around compare prices I want to shop around a little before I decide on these boots. show off act extra special for people watching (usually boastfully) He always shows off on his skateboard sleep over stay somewhere for the night (informal) You should sleep over tonight if the weather is too bad to drive home. sort something out organize, resolve a problem We need to sort the bills out before the first of the month. stick to something continue doing something, limit yourself to one particular thing You will lose weight if you stick to the diet. switch something off stop the energy flow, turn off The light's too bright. Could you switch it off. switch something on start the energy flow, turn on We heard the news as soon as we switched on the car radio. take after somebody resemble a family member I take after my mother. We are both impatient. take something apart purposely break into pieces He took the car brakes apart and found the problem. take something back return an item I have to take our new TV back because it doesn't work. take off start to fly My plane takes off in five minutes. take something off remove something (usually clothing) Take off your socks and shoes and come in the lake! 22 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya take something out remove from a place or thing Can you take the garbage out to the street for me? take somebody out pay for somebody to go somewhere with you My grandparents took us out for dinner and a movie. tear something up rip into pieces I tore up my ex-boyfriend's letters and gave them back to him. think back remember (often + to, sometimes + on) When I think back on my youth, I wish I had studied harder. think something over consider I'll have to think this job offer over before I make my final decision. throw something away dispose of We threw our old furniture away when we won the lottery. turn something down decrease the volume or strength (heat, light etc) Please turn the TV down while the guests are here. turn something down refuse I turned the job down because I don't want to move. turn something off stop the energy flow, switch off Your mother wants you to turn the TV off and come for dinner. turn something on start the energy, switch on It's too dark in here. Let's turn some lights on. turn something up increase the volume or strength (heat, light etc) Can you turn the music up? This is my favourite song. turn up appear suddenly Our cat turned up after we put posters up all over the neighbourhood. try something on sample clothing I'm going to try these jeans on, but I don't think they will fit. try something out test I am going to try this new brand of detergent out. use something up finish the supply The kids used all of the toothpaste up so we need to buy some more. wake up stop sleeping We have to wake up early for work on Monday. warm somebody/ something up increase the temperature You can warm your feet up in front of the fireplace. warm up prepare body for exercise I always warm up by doing sit-ups before I go for a run. wear off fade away Most of my make-up wore off before I got to the party. work out exercise I work out at the gym three times a week. work out be successful Our plan worked out fine. work something out make a calculation We have to work out the total cost before we buy the house. Source - https://www.englishclub.com/vocabulary/phrasal-verbs-list.htm 23 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Exercise 01 ⮚ Use the following verbs (believe, fill, get, look, put, switch, take, throw, turn, try) and the prepositions (away, down, for, in, off, on, out) and form meaningful sentences.

Quick! …………….. the bus. It's ready to leave.

I don't know where my book is. I have to………………. it.

It's dark inside. Can you ………………. the light, please?

………………. the form, please.

I need some new clothes. Why don't you ………………. these jeans? 6. It's warm inside. ………………. your coat.

This pencil is really old. You can ………… it ………..

It's so loud here. Can you ………………. the radio a little?

The firemen were able to ………………. the fire in Church Street.

Does your little brother ………………. ghosts?

Answers Exercise 01

Get on 2. Look for 3. Switch on 4. Fill in 5. Try on 6. Take off 7. Throw it away 8. Turn down 9. Put out 10. Believe in

Exercise 02 Choose the correct preposition and form meaningful sentences.

Henry looked ............. the magazine quickly.

Look ...........! There's a bus coming! It is going to hit you!

Did the doctor look ............. your leg?

She looked ............. from her book when she heard the noise.

We were looking ............. the shops when we were in Ashville.

They are looking ............. meeting their friends.

How do you feel when you look ............. your childhood?

John has to look ............. his younger brother.

Our boss looks ............. some people in his firm.

I look ............. on my child every now and then.

Answers Exercise 02

through 2. Out 3. At 4. Up 5. round

forward to 7. Back on 8. after 9. Down on 10. in

Exercise 03 Choose the correct preposition and form meaningful sentences.

When we got ………. to the room, she had already left.

The police let him get ………. with only a $10 ticket.

Look! Our plane is getting ………. now.

Students have to get ………. when the teacher comes in.

We have to get ………. for our presentation on Friday.

Please return the book when you got ………. it.

My father stopped the car and got ………..

24 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya

Does Ken get ………. with his parents?

We couldn't get ………. what the teacher said.

They got ………. the bus and walked to school.

Answers Exercise 03

back 2. away 3. in 4. Up 5. together 6. through 7. Out 8. along 9. down 10. Off

Exercise 04 Decide whether the Phrasal verbs are separable or inseparable. Choose the correct sentences.

turn on →

i) He turned on the light. ii) He turned the light on.

hand in →

i) Hand in your homework on time. ii) Hand your homework in on time.

get on →

i) They got on the bus. ii) They got the bus on.

look up →

i) Look up the words in a dictionary. ii) Look the words up in a dictionary.

grow up →

i) He grew up in North Carolina. ii) He grew in North Carolina up.

check in →

i) We checked in at our hotel. ii) We checked at our hotel in.

give up →

i) They gave up smoking. ii) They gave smoking up.

ask out →

i) Henry asked Jenny out. ii) Henry asked out Jenny.

mix up →

i) We mixed up the numbers. ii) We mixed the numbers up.

look after →

i) Dennis looked after his brother. ii) Dennis looked his brother after. Answers Exercise 04

turn on → He turned on the light./ He turned the light on.

hand in → Hand in your homework on time./ Hand your homework in on time. 3. get on → They got on the bus.

look up → Look up the words in a dictionary./ Look the words up in a dictionary. 5. grow up → He grew up in North Carolina.

check in → We checked in at our hotel.

give up → They gave up smoking./ They gave smoking up.

ask out → Henry asked Jenny out. / Henry asked out Jenny.

mix up → We mixed up the numbers./ We mixed the numbers up. 10. look after → Dennis looked after his brother.

25 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Exercise 05 Choose the correct phrasal verb from the parenthesis at the end of the sentence. Ex- ▪ Someone broke into my car last night and stole the stereo. (broke down/broke into) ▪ Will you be able to get by this month with the little you have?(get off / get by)

His father always taught him not to _____ those people with less. (look up to / look down on) 2. Stop complaining and _____ your work! (get on with / get over)

The boss wants you to _____ your figures for this month to him. (hand out / hand in) 4. We‘re going to have to _____ our trip to Spain until September. (put up/ put off) 5. I _____ Amir today at the supermarket. It was great to see him. (ran out of / ran into) 6. I‘m so tired of Sophie _____ her engagement ring all the time. (showing off, showing up) 7. The police would not _____ to the kidnapper‘s demands. (give up/ give in) 8. I thought I would _____ for a cup of coffee. Is that okay? (drop off/ drop in) 9. Have you ever _____ such an unusual piece of art? (come forward/come across) 10. It‘s important to _____ on time. (show up / show off)

_____ your feet when walking; you don‘t want to trip! (uplift / lift up) 12. The tree was _____ by the wind. (blown up / blown over)

He _____ his hat to show me his new haircut. (took off / took up) 14. I just can‘t seem to _____ this book. (get off / get into )

Answers Exercise 05

look down on 2. get on with 3. hand in

put off

ran into

showing off

give in

drop in

come across

show up

REPORTED SPEECH

lift up

blown over 13. took off 14. get into

Direct Speech & Indirect Speech (Reported speech) Direct Speech When we want to describe what someone said, one option is to use direct speech. We use direct speech when we simply repeat what someone says, putting the phrase between speech marks: ∙ Paul came in and said, ―I‘m really hungry.‖ It is very common to see direct speech used in books or in a newspaper article.

For example:

∙ The local MP said, ―We plan to make this city a safer place for everyone.‖ As you can see, with direct speech it is common to use the verb ‗to say‘ (‗said‘ in the past). But you can also find other verbs used to indicate direct speech such as ‗ask‘, ‗reply‘, and ‗shout‘.

For example:

∙ When Mrs Diaz opened the door, I asked, ―Have you seen Lee?‖ ∙ She replied, ―No, I haven‘t seen him since lunchtime.‖ ∙ The boss was angry and shouted, ―Why isn‘t he here? He hasn‘t finished that report yet!‖ 26 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Indirect Speech When we want to report what someone said without speech marks and without necessarily using exactly the same words, we can use indirect speech (also called reported speech). For example: ▪ Direct speech: ―We‘re quite cold in here.‖ ▪ Indirect speech: They say (that) they‘re cold. When we report what someone says in the present simple, as in the above sentence, we normally don‘t change the tense, we simply change the subject. However, when we report things in the past, we usually change the tense by moving it one step back. For example, in the following sentence the present simple becomes the past simple in indirect speech: ▪ Direct speech: ―I have a new car.‖ ▪ Indirect speech: He said he had a new car. Indirect Speech for all Tenses - Rules ∙ Present Simple Tense into Past Simple Tense ∙ Present Progressive Tense into Past Progressive Tense ∙ Present Perfect Tense into Past Perfect Tense ∙ Present Perfect Progressive Tense into Past Perfect Tense ∙ Past Simple Tense into Past Perfect Tense ∙ Past Progressive Tense into Perfect Continuous Tense ∙ Past Perfect Tense (The tense remains unchanged) ∙ Past Perfect Progressive Tense (The tense remains unchanged) ∙ Future Simple Tense (e.g. will) into ―would‖ ∙ Future Progressive Tense (e.g. will be) into ―would be‖ ∙ Future Perfect Tense (e.g. will have) into ―would have‖ ∙ Future Perfect Progressive Tense (e.g. will have been) into ―would have been‖ Direct Indirect PRSENT TENSE PRESENT SIMPLE changes into PAST SIMPLE Sunil says, ―I am hungry.‖ Sunil says that he is hungry. Sita says, I want to buy a phone.‖ Sita says that she wants to buy a phone. He says, ―l am going home.‖ He says that he going home.‖ She says, ―My father is going abroad.‖ She says that her father is going abroad.‖ My sister says, ―I do not like beef.‖ My sister says that she does not like beef. The teacher says, ―You all should come tomorrow.‖ The teacher says that we all should come tomorrow.‖ She said ―I work in a hospital‖. She said that she worked in a hospital. They said ―We play Football‖. They said that they played Football. He said ―I love my parents‖. He said that he loved his parents. She said ―I don‘t waste time‖. She said that she didn‘t waste time. He said, ―I write a letter‖ He said that he wrote a letter. 27 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya She said, ―He goes to school daily‖ He said that he went to school daily. They said, ―We love our country‖ They said that they loved their country. He said, ―Piyal does not like computer‖ He said that Piyal did not like computer. PRESENT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST CONTINUOUS He said, ―Mala is listening to the music‖ He said that Mala was listening to the music. She said, ―I am washing my clothes‖ She said that she was washing her clothes. They said, ―We are enjoying the weather‖ They said that they were enjoying the weather. He said, ―It is raining.‖ He said that it was raining. She said, ―I am not laughing‖ She said that she was not laughing. PRESENT PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT She said, ―He has finished his work‖ She said that he had finished his work He said, ―I have started a job‖ He said that he had started a job I said, ―she has eaten the meal‖ I said that she had eaten the meal. They said that they had not been to New They said, ―We have not been to New York. York. PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS He said, ―I have been studying since 3 He said that he had been studying since 3 O'clock‖ She said, ―It has been raining for three days.‖ She said that it had been raining for three days. I said, ―She has been working in this office since 2007‖ I said that she had been working in that office since 2007. PAST TENSE PAST SIMPLE changes into PAST PERFECT He said to me, ―you answered correctly‖ He said to me that I had answered correctly. John said, ―they went to cinema‖ John said that they had gone to cinema. He said, ―I made a table‖ He said that he had made a table. She said, ―I didn‘t buy a car‖ She said that she had not bought a car. Nihal said, ―I want a new suit.‖ Nihal told me that he wanted a new suit. Leena said, ―I am going home tomorrow.‖ Leena told me that she was going home the day after. Nihal said, ―I went to Kandy yesterday.‖ Nihal told me that I had gone to Kandy the day before.‖ Father said, ―I will give you money.‖ Father promised me that he would give us money. Upeksha said, I have nothing to worry about.‖ Upeksha exclaimed that she had nothing to worry about.‖ PAST CONTINUOUS changes into PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS They said, ―We were enjoying the weather‖ They said that they had been enjoying. He said to me, ―I was waiting for you‖ He said to me that he had been waiting for me. I said, ―It was raining‖ I said that it had been raining. She said, ―I was not laughing‖ She said that she not been laughing. PAST PERFECT changes into PAST PERFECT (Tense does not change) She said, ―She had visited a doctor‖ She said that she had visited a doctor. He said, ―I had started a business‖ He said that he had started a business. I said, ―she had eaten the meal‖ I said that she had eaten the meal. They said, ―We had not gone to New York. They said they had not gone to New York 28 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya FUTURE TENSE FUTURE SIMPLE TENSE (WILL changes into WOULD) He said, ―I will study the book‖ He said that he would study the book. She said, ―I will buy a computer‖ She said that she would buy a computer. They said to me, ―we will send you gifts‖ They said to me that they would send you gifts. I said, ―I will not take the exam‖ I said that I would not take the exam. FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE (WILL BE changes into WOULD BE) I said to him, ―I will be waiting for him‖ I said to him that I would be waiting for him. She said,‖ I will be shifting to new home‖ She said that she would be shifting to a new home. He said, ―I will be working hard‖ He said that he would be working hard. He said, ―He will not be flying kite‖ She said that he would not be flying kites. FUTURE PERFECT TENSE (WILL HAVE changes into WOULD HAVE) He said, ―I will have finished the work‖ He said that he would have finished the work. She said, ―They will have passed the examination‖ She said that they would have passed the examination. He said, ―I will have gone‖ He said that he would have gone. ❖ The tense of reported speech may not change if reported speech is a universal truth though its reporting verb belongs to past tense. Examples. ▪ Direct speech: He said, ―Mathematics is a science‖ ▪ Indirect Speech: He said that mathematics is a science. ▪ Direct speech: He said, ―Sun rises in east‖ ▪ Indirect Speech: He said that the sun rises in east. (Tense didn’t change because the statement is a universal truth though its reporting a verb belongs to past tense) Exercise. 01 Change into Indirect Speech

John said, "I love this town."

"Do you like soccer?" He asked me. 3. "I cannot drive a lorry," he said. 4. "Be nice to your brother," he said. 5. "Don't be nasty," he said.

Answers Exercise. 01

John said that he loved that town. 2. He asked me if/whether I liked soccer. 3. He said that he could not drive a lorry. 4. He advised/asked me to be nice to my brother. 5. He advised/ urged me to not be nasty.

"Don't waste your money" she said. 7. "What have you decided to do?" she asked him. 8. "I always wake up early," he said. 9. "You should revise your lessons," he said. 10. "Where have you been?" he asked me.

She suggested/told me to not waste my money. 7. She asked him what he had decided to do. 8. He said that he always woke up early. 9. He ordered/advised me to revise my lessons. 10. He wanted to know where I had been.

29 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Exercise. 02 Complete the sentences in reported speech. I. "I was very tired," she said. II. "Be careful, Ben," she said. III. "I will get myself a drink," she says. VII. VII. "Where did you spend your holidays last year?" she asked me. VIII. VIII. He said, "Don't go too far." IV. "Why haven't you phoned me?" he asked me. V. "I cannot drive them home," he said. VI. "Peter, do you prefer tea or coffee?" she says. Answers Exercise. 02 I. She said that she had been very tired. II. She told Ben to be careful III. She says that she will get herself a drink IV. He wondered why I hadn't phoned him V. He said that he could not drive them home VI. She asks Peter if he prefers tea or coffee IX. IX. "Have you been shopping?" he asked us. X. X. "Don't make so much noise," he says. VII. She asked me where I had spent my holidays the year before VIII. He advised her not to go too far IX. He wanted to know if we had been shopping X. He asks us not to make so much noise COMMENT CLAUSES IN ENGLISH What is a comment clause? A comment clause is a short sentence added to a simple sentence to express the speaker‘s idea of what he is going to say. Comment clauses are of varied types.

Ex-:

▪ At that time, I believe, he worked as a mechanic. ▪ He‘s a workaholic, you see. ⮚ Other examples of comment clauses (mainly in informal speech) are: You know, I know, I think, I’m afraid, I see, As you see, To be frank, etc. ⮚ Comment clauses are identified as pragmatic markers. ▪ I think; ▪ I suppose; ▪ I reckon; ▪ I guess; ▪ I fear; ▪ I hope; ▪ I hear; ▪ I feel; ▪ I understand; ▪ I admit; ▪ I see; ▪ I‘m sure; ▪ I‘m convinced; ▪ I‘m sorry; ▪ I‘m afraid; ▪ You know; ▪ You see; ▪ It seems; ▪ So it seems; ▪ They say; ▪ They allege; ▪ One hears; ▪ As I‘m told; ▪ As I understand; ▪ As you know; ▪ As everybody knows; ▪ Look; ▪ Say; ▪ Listen; ▪ Mind you; ▪ Mark you; ▪ I dare say; ▪ I must say; ▪ I can see; ▪ You must admit; ▪ You may know; ▪ What‘s more; ▪ What annoys me; {surprising, annoying, strange, etc.} ▪ It is said; ▪ It is claimed; ▪ It is rumored; ▪ As was pointed out; ▪ Perfect ; ▪ Sure; ▪ I don‘t know; ▪ I don‘t doubt; ▪ Wouldn‘t you say? ▪ Don‘t you think? 30 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya STRUCTURES

First-person pronoun + present-tense verb/adjective:

I think, • I suppose, • I guess, • I reckon • I fear, • I hope, • I hear, • I feel, • I understand • I admit, • I see, • I‘m sure, • I‘m convinced, • I‘m afraid;

Second-person pronoun + present-tense verb/adjective:

You know; • You see; • You‘re sure

Third-person pronoun + present-tense verb/adjective:

It seems; • One hears; • They say, • They allege; • They‘re sure Conjunction + first-/second-/third-person pronoun + present-tense

As I‘m told, • As I understand , • As you know,

So it seems, • As everybody knows;

Imperative verb:

• Look, • Say, • Listen, • Mind You, • Mark you; Nominal relative clause:

What‘s more, {surprising, annoying, strange, etc.}, • What annoys me Modalized forms

I dare say, • I must say, • I can see, • You must admit, • You may know; Passive forms

It is said, • It is claimed, • It is rumored, • As was pointed out • I‘m convinced;

Negative forms

I don‘t know, • I don‘t doubt

Interrogative tag forms

Wouldn‘t you say?, • Don‘t you think?

31 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Syntactic Types of Comment Clauses In English (1) Like the matrix clause of a main clause,

I hope;

(2) like an adverbial finite clause (introduced by as), •as I say; (3) like a nominal relative clause,

what is more important;

(4) to-infinitive clause as style disjunct, •to be honest, • to be fair; (5) -ing clause as style disjunct,

speaking openly;

(6) -ed clause as style disjunct,

stated bluntly.

Matrix: A matrix clause is a clause that contains a subordinate clause. Examples The whole of I think I'd like coffee is a matrix clause, consisting of a main clause and a subordinate clause. Disjunct :A disjunct is a type of sentence adverb that comments on what is being said. Examples ▪ Regrettably, the book is no longer in print, but copies can be found in libraries and secondhand bookshops. ▪ Hopefully, the book will inspire readers to a wider interest in weather, atmospheric science, and earth science in general. The Semantic Classes Of Comment Clauses 01.Hedging [Avoid making a definite statement. ]

It appears , • It seems,

02. Expressing Idea:

I think, • I suppose, • I hope,

03. Expressing Opinion:

I dare say, • I must say, • I feel, • You know; • You see; • You realize, • You can see, • You may know,

32 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya

04. Expressing Doubt:

l guess, • I reckon, • I may assume,

05. Expressing Approval:

I admit, • I see, • I‘m convinced, • I understand,

06. Expressing Disapproval:

I‘m afraid; • I fear, • I don‘t agree,

07. Expressing Confidence:

I‘m sure, • I believe, • It is certain,

08. Expressing Hearsay:

I hear, • They say, • They allege; • One hears;

It is said, • It is rumored, • I'm told, • It has been claimed,

Expressing Certainty

I don‘t deny, • I don‘t doubt, • It‘s true, • I must say, • I admit,

10.Expressing Emotions

I fear, • I wish, • I hope, • I‘m glad to say,

I‘m delighted to say,

11.Claiming Agreement

You must admit, • Do you suppose?

12.Claiming Attention `• Mind you, • Mark. COMMENT CLAUSES IN USE Dialogue-01 A: Hello, good morning, I want to meet you. B: What for? A: l am afraid; I wonder if you could you lend me thousand rupees. B: l am sorry; I haven‘t any. Please try Mohan. Dialogue-02 A: Are you sure, he will come? B: I think; he will come because he has a duty here. A: Thank you. Dialogue-03 A: Upali is very late. I think, he has forgotten the business. B: I am sure; he will come because he likes travelling so much. A: But I doubt; he will come. As you know, he is not a man of word. B: It seems; he has some sort of trouble; otherwise he wouldn‘t be late. Dialogue-04 A: Hello, where are you going? B: to work A: So early? B: You know; I go to work early every day. 33 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Dialogue-05 A: See; Sudath hasn‘t posted my letter. B: I reckon, he has forgotten to do so. A: But he should have been more careful. Dialogue-06 A: The bus is very late. It seems we can‘t go to the party on time. B: Don’t you think? We‘d better catch a taxi. A: Sure, let‘s do so. As you say, we‘d better catch a taxi. ⮚ Use the following comment clauses in grammatically correct, meaningful sentences.

I mean, • As I suppose, • I admit, • To be fair, • What is more important

Modal Answers ▪ I mean, if we go by the instructions, we can have better results ▪ As I suppose, the guest will arrive a little bit late. ▪ I admit, it is my fault that | did not invite him. ▪ To be fair, we must divide the money equally. ▪ What is more important, we must give money for them to spend for whatever they need. TRANSFORMATION OF SENTENCES ⮚ Interchange of affirmative and negative sentences. ⮚ Interchange of interrogative and assertive sentences. ⮚ Interchange of exclamatory and assertive sentences. ⮚ Conversion of simple sentence to compound sentence. ⮚ Conversion of simple sentence to complex sentence. Transformation In transformation one form is changed into another form. It may be verb-wise or sentence wise. Interchange Interchange means a reciprocal exchange of two forms. In this case a verb in the sentence only changes. Therefore the meaning of the sentence changes. Conversion Conversion means changing from one form of sentence into another form without changing the original meaning. In this case a verb in the sentence only changes. ⮚ INTERCHANGE OF AFFIRMATIVE AND NEGATIVE SENTENCES Affirmative to negative ▪ Negative sentences are forms by putting ‗not‘ after auxiliary verbs[ helping verbs] ▪ Negative statements are the opposite of positive statements. 34 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Negative Words never no hardly nobody none scarcely no one not barely nowhere rarely Common Helping Verbs am is are was were be being been have has had do does did can could may might must will should would ought to used to ⮚ The following sentences show you the ways to make a sentence negative in the past tense. ▪ Sentence: Paul called me yesterday. ▪ Negative: Paul did not call me yesterday. ▪ Sentence: Jamie went to the grocery store. ▪ Negative: Jamie never went to the grocery store. ▪ Sentence: Gina laughed when she saw the funny face of the clown. ▪ Negative: Gina did not laugh when she saw the funny face of the clown. When forming a negative in the past tense, the helping verb did is what signals the past tense, and the main verb laugh does not have an -ed ending. Affirmative sentences and negative sentences in the present tense.

A helping verb used with the negative word not.

▪ Sentence: My guests are arriving now. ▪ Negative: My guests are not arriving now.

The negative word no.

▪ Sentence: Jennie has money. ▪ Negative: Jennie has no money.

The contraction n ‟t

▪ Sentence: Jeanette misses her mom. ▪ Negative: Jeanette doesn‘t miss her mom.

The negative adverb rarely.

▪ Sentence: I always go to the gym after work. ▪ Negative: I rarely go to the gym after work.

The negative subject nobody.

▪ Sentence: Everybody gets the day off. ▪ Negative: Nobody gets the day off. ⮚ Change the following affirmative sentences into negative sentences. Exercise-01

My sister ............. not live with my parents.(do / does )

I .............not know the answer. (do /does )

I .............not want to leave now. (do / does)

My mother .............not work at a bank. (does / do)

Supriya .............not sing very well. (does / do )

Martin .............not get along with his brother-in-law. (do / does )

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The boy .............not kill the spider with his shoe.(did /does )

She .............not recognize him at once. (did /had)

He .............not apologize for his conduct. (did / had)

She .......,.not throw a tantrum when she was told that she wouldn‘t be able to go. (did /had) Answers Exercise-01

My sister does not live with my parents.

I do not know the answer.

I do not want to leave now.

My mother does not work at a bank.

Supriya does not sing very well.

Martin does not get along with his brother-in-law.

The boy did not kill the spider with his shoe.

She did not recognize him at once.

He did not apologize for his conduct.

She did not throw a tantrum when she was told that she wouldn‘t be able to go.

Exercise-02

Shyam passed the test.

Shyam ......................... the test. (did not pass / did not passed / had not passed)

He gave me a glass of milk.

He ...................... me a glass of milk. (did not give / did not gave / had not given)

The contractor finished the work in one day.

The contractor ...................... the work in one day.(had not finished / did not finished / did not finish

He goes to office at 9 o‘clock.

He ............... to office at 9 o'clock.(did not go / does not go / does not goes)

She speaks English fluently

She ...................... English fluently.(does not speaks / does not speak / did not speak)

They arrived in the morning.

They ..................... in the morning.(did not arrive / did not arrived / had not arrived)

He calls his mother every day.

He ........................ his mother every day.(did not call / does not calls / does not call)

My father reads a lot.

My mother .................... a lot.(do not read / does not read / did not read)

She knows how to knit.

She ................ how to knit.(does not knows / does not know / did not know)

He dared to challenge me.

He ......................... to challenge me.(does not dare / did not dare / has not dared)

They have promised to pay higher wages.

They ...................... to pay higher wages.(have not promise / have not promised / did not promise)

My mother and grandmother go to the temple every day.

My mother and grandmother ................ to the temple every day.(do not go / does not go / did not go) 36 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya

My friend writes short stories.

My friend ................ short stories.(do not write / does not writes / does not write)

He looked at the pictures on the wall.

He .............. at the pictures on the wall.(did not look / does not look / had not look)

Her performance in that movie won her many awards.

Her performance in the movie ..................... her any awards.(did not win / does not win / had not won) Answers Exercise-02

Shyam did not pass the test.

He did not give me a glass of milk.

The contractor did not finish the work in one day.

He does not go to office at 9 o‘clock.

She does not speak English fluently.

They did not arrive in the morning.

He does not call his mother every day.

My father does not read much.

She does not know how to knit.

He did not dare to challenge me.

They have not promised to pay higher wages.

My mother and grandmother do not go to the temple every day.

My friend does not write short stories.

He did not look at the pictures on the wall.

Her performance in that movie did not win her any awards.

Exercise-02

John has fallen ill.

He smokes.

The thief was hiding behind a tree. 4. He was telling the truth.

They made her queen.

The roof was blown off in the storm. 7. You look happy.

The milk turned sour.

Answers Exercise-02

John has not fallen ill.

He does not smoke.

The thief was not hiding behind a tree. 4. He was not telling the truth.

They did not make her queen.

The roof was not blown off in the storm. 7. You do not look happy.

The milk did not turn sour.

The peon rang the bell.

She has a lovely voice.

The rumor seems true.

We waited at the station.

She called me a fool.

They had finished their work. 15. John broke another glass today.

The peon did not ring the bell. 10. She does not have a lovely voice. 11. The rumor does not seem true. 12. We did not wait at the station. 13. She did not call me a fool.

They had not finished their work. 15. John did not break another glass today.

37 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Exercise-03 Read the following sentences and express their idea in a negative form 1. A giraffe is taller than an elephant.

Akbar was the greatest of the Moghul emperors.

Shyam is the cleverest boy in the class.

Everybody was present.

As soon as he came, he started creating trouble.

As soon as we heard the gunshots, we rushed indoors.

He failed to win the first prize.

Only a millionaire can buy such an expensive car.

Everyone makes mistakes.

I will always remember this.

All the students liked the program

Chennai is hotter than Mumbai.

The scorpion is shyer than other wall inhabitants.

The farmer was too weak to walk.

He is always on time.

James runs faster than Peter.

The water is too cold for me to drink.

James can write faster than me.

Everyone found the play interesting.

This medicine is cheap.

Iron is a heavy metal.

Rahul is the tallest boy in the class.

Answers Exercise-03

An elephant is not as tall as a giraffe.

No other Moghul emperor was as great as Akbar.

No other boy in the class is as clever as Shyam.

Nobody was absent.

No sooner did he come than he started creating trouble.

No sooner did we hear the gunshots than we rushed indoors.

He did not win the first prize.

None but a millionaire can buy such an expensive car.

There is no one who does not make mistakes.

I will never forget this

None of the students disliked the program. / No student disliked the program. 12. Mumbai is not as hot as Chennai.

No other wall inhabitant is as shy as the scorpion.

The farmer was so weak that he could not walk.

He is never late.

Peter does not run as fast as James.

The water is so cold that I cannot drink it.

I cannot write as fast as James.

No one found the play uninteresting.

This medicine is not expensive.

Iron is not a light metal.

No other boy in the class is as tall as Rahul.

38 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ INTERCHANGE OF INTERROGATIVE AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCES ❖ An assertive sentence can be changed into an interrogative sentence by putting the auxiliary verb before the subject. Assertive Interrogative She is my friend. Is she my friend? He has finished his work. Is he very intelligent? He is very intelligent Has he finished his work? ❖ If the assertive sentence contains the adverb never, it becomes ever in the interrogative sentence. ▪ Assertive: I never asked you to do it. ▪ Interrogative: Did I ever ask you to do it? ❖ If the assertive sentence contains the adverb no, it becomes any in the interrogative sentence. ▪ Assertive: There is no sense in doing that. ▪ Interrogative: Is there any sense in doing that? More Examples Assertive Interrogative He is a good person. Is he not a good person? He was very gentle. Was he very gentle? He plays Football. Does he play football? They did play football yesterday. Did they not play football yesterday? I never drink tea. Do I ever drink tea? Everybody wishes to be happy. Who doesn't wish to be happy? Nobody could count my love for you. Who could count my love for you? There is no use of this law. What is the use of this law? / Is there any use of this law? There is no man happier than Jami. Who is Happier than Jami? It is no use of taking unfair means in the exam. Why take unfair means in the exam? or It does not matter if you fail in the exam. or What if you fail in the exam? It was a great sight. Was it a great sight? OR Was it not a great sight? No one can tolerate this. Can anyone tolerate this? There is nothing particularly impressive about this picture. Is there anything particularly impressive about this picture? No one worships the setting sun. Does anyone worship the setting sun? Gulliver could hear his watch ticking in his pocket. Could Gulliver hear his watch ticking in his pocket? 39 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ❖ In the following examples the speaker expects the answer to be ‗yes‘. In that case, the statement will be in the affirmative. If the speaker expects the answer to be ‗no‘, then the statement will have to be in the negative. Question Statement Will he ever forget that experience? He will never forget that experience. Was she not a stupid to do that? She was a stupid to do that. Can a leopard change its spots? A leopard cannot change its spots. Who would not like to be rich? Everyone would like to be rich. How can man remain immortal? Man cannot remain immortal. Why waste time like this? It is foolish to waste time like this. What is the use of waiting for her? It is no use waiting for her. Are we going to let them do this? We are not going to let them do this. Change the following assertive sentences into interrogative. Exercise-01

It was a great sight.

No one can tolerate this.

There is nothing particularly impressive about this picture.

No one worships the setting sun.

Gulliver could hear his watch ticking in his pocket.

It is useless to cry over spilt milk.

Switzerland is known for its scenic beauty.

The beauty of nature is beyond description.

Everybody has heard of Darwin.

He has his dinner at seven every evening.

I told him to practice regularly.

Virtue is its own reward.

Answers Exercise-01

Was it a great sight? OR Was it not a great sight?

Can anyone tolerate this?

Is there anything particularly impressive about this picture?

Does anyone worship the setting sun?

Could Gulliver hear his watch ticking in his pocket?

Is it useless to cry over spilt milk? OR Is it not useless to cry over spilt milk? 7. Is Switzerland known for its scenic beauty? OR Is not Switzerland known for its scenic beauty?

Is the beauty of nature beyond description? OR Isn‘t the beauty of nature beyond description?

Has everybody heard of Darwin? OR Hasn‘t everybody heard of Darwin? 10. Does he have his dinner at seven every evening?

Did I tell him to practice regularly? OR Did I not tell him to practice regularly? 12. Is not virtue its own reward?

40 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Notes ❖ The indefinite pronouns everybody, everything, anything, anyone etc., should be written as a single word and should be followed by a singular verb. Exercise-02

Fritz is leaving today.

Margery was accused of cheating.

Ernie ate the last doughnut.

The chicken crossed the road.

Betty can play the saxophone.

You can understand why I'm upset.

There's a doctor in the house.

The geese are returning early this year.

Your parents try to cheer you up when you're sad.

Darlene chose the most expensive items on the menu.

You will take steps to correct this problem.

The doctor told us to add cereal to the baby's formula.

Bill's teachers understand why he's sleepy all the time.

Laura knows how to serve her customers effectively and efficiently. 15. The prices in our cafeteria are reasonable.

He will drive the children to swim practice.

All the managers were taught how to use the new software.

We have received a pay raise this year.

Basketball is Etta's favorite sport.

The repairs to the car cost more than the car was worth.

Answers Exercise-02

Is Fritz leaving today?

Was Margery accused of cheating?

Did Ernie eat the last doughnut?

Did the chicken cross the road?

Can Betty play the saxophone?

Can you understand why I'm upset?

Is there a doctor in the house?

Are the geese returning early this year?

Do your parents try to cheer you up when you're sad?

Did Darlene choose the most expensive items on the menu?

Will you take steps to correct this problem?

Did the doctor tell us to add cereal to the baby's formula?

Do Bill's teachers understand why he's sleepy all the time?

Does Laura know how to serve her customers effectively and efficiently? 15. Are the prices in our cafeteria reasonable?

Will he drive the children to swim practice?

Were all the managers taught how to use the new software?

Have we received a pay raise this year?

Is basketball Etta's favorite sport?

Did the repairs to the car cost more than the car was worth?

41 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ INTERCHANGE OF EXCLAMATORY AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCES Generally in an exclamatory sentence, a part of predicate goes before the subject. That part of the predicate will come after subject and exclamatory word will be replaced with particular adverb or adverbial phrase expressing the emotion. Interchange of Exclamatory Into Assertive Sentences Rule 1. ∙ Exclamatory sentences which start with 'How‟' or 'What' ∙ In these sentences 'How' or 'What' are replaced by Subject and 'very' is used before Adjective.

Examples :

▪ Exclamatory : How foolish I have been! ▪ Assertive : I have been very foolish. ▪ Exclamatory : What a dangerous thing a little knowledge is ! ▪ Assertive : A little knowledge is a very dangerous thing. Rule 2. ∙ ‗wish' is used to interchange sentences which start with O, Oh, Would, If etc.

Examples :

▪ Exclamatory : O that I were a child again! ▪ Assertive : I wish that I were a child again. ▪ Exclamatory : Would that I had got success! ▪ Assertive : I wish that I had got success. Rule 3. ∙ The sentences which start with ‗Alas‟, 'Hurrah' and 'Bravo' words are replaced with 'It is sad‘. 'It is a matter of joy' and ‗It is a matter of praise‘ respectively. Examples ▪ Exclamatory : Alas! We have lost the battle. ▪ Assertive: It is sad that we have lost the battle. ▪ Exclamatory : Hurrah! My sister has won the first prize. ▪ Assertive: It is a matter of joy that my sister has won the first prize. ▪ Exclamatory : Bravo! You have secured the first position. ▪ Assertive: It is a matter of praise that you have secured the first position. More examples Exclamatory Assertive O, what a fall was there my countrymen! There was a terrible fall, my countrymen. O, what a misery awaits a wasted youth! A great misery awaits a wasted youth. How beautiful is night! Night is very beautiful. Hurrah! My father is come. I rejoice that my father is come. How nice! It is very nice. How beautiful to look at! It is very beautiful to look at. How have the mighty fallen! The mighty have fallen low. 42 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Had I the wings of a dove. I wish I had the wings of a dove. Death before dishonor. I wish death before dishonor. Good morning, Mr. Silva! I wish you good morning Mr. Silva. How base of him to desert you in your time of need! It was extremely base of him to desert you in your time of need. How upset you seem to be! You seem to be much upset. O, that the desert was my dwelling place! I wish that desert were my dwelling place What a beautiful flower! It is a beautiful flower. What a great victory! It is a great victory. How kind of you to help him like that! It is very kind of you to help him like that. What a glorious morning! It is indeed a glorious morning. ⮚ INTERCHANGE OF AN ASSERTIVE SENTENCE INTO AN EXCLAMATORY SENTENCE Assertive Exclamatory He is truly noble. How noble he is! This is indeed a pleasant surprise. What a pleasant surprise this is! It was an extremely delightful party. What a delightful party it was! I wish I were young again. O that I were young again! Exercise-01 Rewrite the following sentences in the exclamatory form.

It is kind of you to invite us.

It was foolish of him to behave like that.

It was prudent of the boy to alert the policeman.

It was careless of him to leave the door unlocked.

Answers Exercise-01

How kind of you to invite us!

How foolish of him to behave like that!

How prudent of the boy to alert the policeman!

How careless of him to leave the door unlocked!

Exercise-02 Change the following assertive sentences into exclamatory sentences.

You are very slow.

She is very beautiful.

They are very happy here. 4. It was a very marvelous sight. 5. This is a very moving story.

I am very fortunate.

It was a very difficult puzzle.

They are very excited about the journey. 9. I was very surprised when I heard the news. 10. It was a very hot day.

43 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Answers Exercise-02

How slow you are!

How beautiful she is!

How happy they are here! 4. What a marvelous sight it was! 5. What a moving story this is!

How fortunate I am!

What a difficult puzzle it was! 8. How excited they are about the journey! 9. How surprised I was when I heard the news! 10. What a hot day it was!

⮚ INTERCHANGE OF AN IMPERATIVE SENTENCE AND ASSERTIVE SENTENCE Imperative Interrogative Stop it. Will you stop it? Please, give me a glass of water. Will you, please, give me a glass of water? Speak loudly. Will you speak loudly? Please take me to the Director of the Institute. Will you, please, take me to the Director? Come here. Will you come here? / Come here, will you? ❖ The interrogative is a milder form of the imperative. But the addition of „or not‟ to the interrogative form will add a touch of threat to it. ▪ Imperative: Shut up. ▪ Interrogative: Will you shut up or not? ▪ Imperative: Get out of here. ▪ Interrogative: Will you get out of here or not? SENTENCE TRANSFORMATION ⮚ CONVERSION OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE INTO A COMPOUND SENTENCE ∙ A simple sentence consists of one subject and one predicate. ∙ A compound sentence consists of two or more co-ordinate clauses, each of which has its own subject and predicate. Simple sentence ▪ Climbing up the tree, he plucked some mangoes. (One finite verb — One main clause) Compound sentence ▪ He climbed up the tree and plucked some mangoes. (Two finite verbs — Two main clauses) In the above example the phrase ‘climbing up the tree’ was changed into the clause ‘He climbed up the tree’. Thus a simple sentence can be converted into a compound sentence i. by expanding a word or phrase into a clause and ii. by using a coordinating conjunction to connect the clauses. 44 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Simple Compound He must run fast to catch the train. He must run fast or he will not catch the train. In spite of his illness he attended the class. He was ill, but he attended the classes. Besides being pretty, she is clever. She is not only pretty but also clever. Being ill, he didn‘t attend the party. He was ill and didn‘t attend the party. Convert the following simple sentences into compound sentences.

Being guilty he went into hiding.

Being innocent, he never thought of running away.

Besides being sent to prison, he was heavily fined.

The old man sat in a corner, drinking.

Owing to a friend‘s intervention, he was later released from jail.

Being lazy, he failed.

He fled for fear of being arrested.

The old man being weak could not walk properly.

His father in spite of being poor is a contended man.

She must work hard to be successful in the examination.

Our teacher is popular among students for his diligence.

But for his faults he would have progressed immensely.

Visualizing a danger ahead, the traveler became cautious.

The student must accept his fault to escape his punishment.

The culprit ran away to escape his arrest.

Taking off their clothes the children jumped into the river.

In the event of being late you will not be allowed entry.

Answers

He was guilty and went into hiding.

He was innocent and never thought of running away.

He was not only sent to prison but also heavily fined.

The old man sat in a corner and drank.

A friend intervened and he was later released from jail.

He was lazy and failed.

He feared that he would be arrested and fled.

The old man was weak therefore he could not walk properly.

His father is poor but he is a contended man.

She must work hard otherwise she will not be successful in the examination. 11. Our teacher is diligent therefore he is popular among students.

He has faults otherwise he would have progressed immensely.

The traveler visualized a danger ahead and he became cautious.

The student must accept his fault otherwise he will be punished.

The culprit ran away otherwise he would have been arrested.

The children took off their clothes and they jumped into the river.

You must not be late or you will not be allowed entry.

45 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya ⮚ CONVERSION OF A SIMPLE SENTENCE INTO A COMPLEX SENTENCE A simple sentence can be converted to a complex sentence by expanding a word or phrase into a subordinate clause. This subordinate clause can be a noun clause, an adjective clause or an adverb clause. Ex- ▪ He proved his innocence. This simple sentence can be converted into a complex sentence by expanding the noun ‗his innocence‘ into a noun clause. ▪ He proved that he was innocent. ❖ Few examples are given below to understand the concept and conventional rules of transforming between Simple Sentence and Complex Sentences:-

Rule: 1:

“Present participle‖ in a simple sentence, to convert into complex sentences by adding “since/as/when” at the first half of the sentence. Simple Sentence: Closing the door, I went back to school. Complex Sentence: When I closed the door, I went back to school. Rule: 2 “Being/ Verb+ing” in a simple sentence, to convert into a complex sentence by adding “as/when/since” at the first half of the sentence. Simple Sentence: After winning a beauty contest she cried. Complex Sentence: As she won the beauty contest, she cried. Rule: 3 “Too…to” in a simple sentence, to convert into a complex sentence by adding “so…that (negative)”. Simple Sentence: He is too weak to carry the box. Complex Sentence: He is so weak that he cannot carry the box. Rule: 4 ―To‖ in the simple sentence, to convert into a complex sentence by adding ―so that‖ in the sentence. Simple sentence: We eat to live. Complex Sentence: We eat so that we can live. Rule: 5 In the simple sentence ―in spite of/ despite‖, to convert into the complex sentence by adding ―though/ although‖ in the sentence. Simple Sentence: In spite of being rich, she is hard working. Complex Sentence: Though she is rich, she is hard working. Rule: 6 ―Because of” in the simple sentence, to convert it to the complex sentence by adding ―since‖ at the beginning of the sentence. Simple Sentence: Because of his illness, he could not join the meeting. Complex Sentence: Since he was ill, he could not join the meeting. 46 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Rule: 7 ―Subject + verb + object + present participle‖ type of simple sentence, to convert it to the complex sentence by ―subject + verb + object + relative pronoun of the object + be verb according to relative pronoun and tense + rest of the sentence‖. Simple Sentence: I saw a bird flying. Complex Sentence: I saw a bird which was flying. Rule: 8 In the simple sentence starts with ―without‖, by adding ―if/ in case‖ is converted into the complex sentence. Simple Sentence: Without adding the sugar the dish will taste bad. Complex Sentence: If you do not add sugar the dish will taste bad. Rule: 9 In the simple sentence ―at the time‖ will be converted into ―when‖ in the complex sentence. Simple Sentence: She woke up at the time of load shedding. Complex Sentence: She woke up when it was load shedding.

Rule: 10:

In the simple sentence, ―adjective‖ will be converted into ―that/which‖ in the complex sentence. Simple Sentence: It was a blue shirt. Complex Sentence: It was a shirt which was blue. Convert the following simple sentences into complex sentences.

I saw a wounded dog.

The girl sitting next to Peter is his sister.

I was the first to reach the spot.

He liked his former place.

We need a house to live in.

Your father is the man to solve this problem.

He bought his uncle‘s house.

Nobody could find out the place of their stay.

The purpose of his visit to this place is not known.

All the laborers set out for their homes at sunset.

On seeing the policeman, the thief fled away.

You cannot succeed without working hard.

Pious women are always respected by all.

I do not know the way leading to his house.

The guests sitting in the room could not hear his voice.

She hoped to be successful in the examination.

A man fair in his dealings is always trusted.

Answers

I saw a dog that was wounded.

The girl who is sitting next to Peter is his sister.

I was the first, who reached the spot.

47 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya

He liked the place where he lived formerly.

We need a house where we can live in.

Your father is the man who can solve this problem.

He bought the house which belonged to his uncle.

Nobody could find out the place where they stayed.

It is not known what is the purpose of his visit to this place.

All the laborers set out for their homes when the sun set.

The thief fled away when he saw the police man.

Unless you work hard you cannot succeed.

All always respect the women who are pious.

I do not know the way which leads to his house.

The guests sitting in the room could not hear what he spoke.

She hoped that she would be successful in the examination.

A man who is fair in his dealings is always trusted.

Rewrite the following Compound Sentences as Complex Sentences:

Compound Complex Let me reach my office and then I shall talk to him. I shall talk to him when I reach my office. Spare the rod and spoil the child. The child is spoilt when the rod is spared. The thief saw the police man, so he ran away. The thief ran away when he saw the police man. She is feeling unwell so she cannot attend her office today. She cannot attend her office today as she is feeling unwell. The child felt hungry, so he started weeping. The child started weeping because he felt hungry. The news is very good but it is not true. The news is too good to be true. Eat less and you will remain healthy. You will remain healthy if you eat less. The old man is very rich but he is a miser. The old man is a miser though he is very rich. Children put on new clothes and went to see the fair. Children went to see the fair after putting on new clothes. Keep quiet or you will repent. You will repent if you do not keep quite.

Rewrite the following Complex Sentences as Compound Sentences:

Complex Compound I am confident that he is innocent in this matter. He is innocent in this matter and I am confident about it. Unless he works hard, he cannot pass the examination. He must work hard otherwise he cannot pass the examination. However hard work she may do she cannot pass the examination. She may do as hard work as she can but she cannot pass the examination. She is sure that he has stolen her purse. He has stolen her purse and she is sure about it. As the shopkeeper quarrels with every customer, nobody likes him. The shopkeeper quarrels with every customer therefore nobody likes him. If he does not improve his behavior, he will lose all his friends. He must improve his behavior otherwise he will lose all his friends. Unless the culprit accepts his fault, he will not be spared. The culprit must accept his fault otherwise he will not be spared. She did not attend the office because she felt unwell today. She felt unwell today so she did not attend the office. She has lost the book that she had purchased. She had purchased a book and she has lost it. If you do not attend the class you will not be allowed to sit in the examination. You must attend the class otherwise you will not be allowed to sit in the examination. 48 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya PSYCHOLINGUISTICS BRIEF INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLINGUISTICS ∙ Psycholinguistics studies how the brain processes language. ∙ Psycholinguistics is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors related to language study. It studies how the brain processes language. ∙ Psycholinguistics is the study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that are related to study the human abilities to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Its scope is to study how the brain processes language. ∙ Psycholinguistics is the branch of study which combines the disciplines of Psychology and Linguistics. It is concerned with the relationship between human mind and language as it examines the process that occurs in brain while producing and receiving both spoken and written discourse. CHOMSKYAN REVELATION ∙ Chomsky posited humans possess a special innate ability for language and that complex syntactic feature such as recursion is hardwired in the brain. All the humans have an ability to learn language. LAD is fixed in human mind. ∙ The Language Acquisition Device (LAD) is the innate biological ability of humans to acquire and develop language. INDIVIDUAL FACTORS

Age

Personality

Experience

Motivation

Cognition

1-AGE - Second language acquisition is influenced by the age of the learner. Children with solid literacy skills in their own language seem to be in the best position to acquire a new language efficiently. 2-PERSONALITY - Introverted or anxious learners usually make slower progress, particularly in the development of oral skills. They are less likely to take opportunities to speak. They will take risks, and thus will give themselves much more practice. 3-EXPERIENCE - Learners who have acquired general knowledge and experience are in a stronger position to develop a new language than those who haven't. 4-MOTIVATION - Intrinsic motivation: Refers to motivation that comes from inside an individual rather than from any external or outside rewards. Extrinsic motivation: Refers to motivation that comes from outside an individual. The motivating factors are external, or outside, rewards such as money or grades. These rewards provide satisfaction and pleasure that the task itself may not provide. 5-COGNITION In general, it seems that students with greater cognitive abilities will make the faster progress. Some linguists believe that there is a specific, innate language learning ability that is stronger in some students than in others. 49 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya AFFECTIVE FACTORS Affective factors are emotional factors which influence learning.

Self-Esteem

Inhibition

Risk Taking

Anxiety

Empathy

COMPARISON BETWEEN 1ST & 2ND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION Similarities 1-In both first and second language acquisition, there are predictable stages, and particular structures are acquired in a set order. Individuals may move more slowly or quickly through these stages, but they cannot skip ahead. 2-In both first and second language acquisition, making errors is a part of learning. For example, a learner may start out using the correct form of an irregular verb as part of a language chunk, but later over-generalize and place a regular affix on that same verb. 3-In both first and second language acquisition, the learner uses context clues, prior knowledge, and interaction to comprehend language. 4-And in both first and second language acquisition, age is an important variable affecting proficiency. Differences 1-In first language acquisition, children spend several years listening to language, babbling, and using telegraphic speech before they can form sentences. But in second language acquisition in older learners, learning is more rapid and people are able to form sentences within a shorter period of time. 2-In second language learning in older learners, learners are able to use more meta-cognitive processes in their learning. They can consciously analyze and manipulate grammatical structures, and they can describe how language works. This can speed the learning process. 3-In second language learning in older learners, learners bring more life experience and background knowledge to their learning. They have more schemata and more learning strategies to help them learn the second language. 4-Almost everyone acquires a first language, but not everyone acquires a second language. Acquiring a first language happens naturally, while acquiring a second language often requires conscious effort on the part of the learner. LANGUAGE PRODUCTION Language production is the production of spoken & written language. It describes all stages between having a concept into linguistic form. Speech Production It concerns with how people produce language in his/her mind to convey their meanings that are comprehensible to others either it is in written form or spoken form. Basically it refers that how humans use words to communicate ideas and feelings and how such communication is understood. In simple wording it is how the brain creates and understands language. 50 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Sub-Levels of Speech Production There are four sub-levels in speech production i. Conceptualization ii. Formulation iii. Articulation iv. Self-Monitoring QUESTION AND ANSWER i. Define and explain the term,’ psycholinguistics’ in brief with reference to its scope. The study of the psychological and neurobiological factors that are related to study the human abilities to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. Its scope is to study how the brain processes language. ii. Name the four processes of speech mechanism. ▪ Trachea ▪ Larynx ▪ Pharynx ▪ Oral cavity ∙ Energy comes from the air supplied by the lungs. ∙ The vocal folds produce sound at the larynx. ∙ The sound is then filtered, or shaped, by the articulators. The oral cavity is the space in your mouth. The nasal cavity, obviously, is the space inside and behind your nose. And of course, we use our tongues, lips, teeth and jaws to articulate speech as well. In the next unit, we‘ll look in more detail at how we use our articulators.

The three mechanisms that we use to produce speech are:

∙ respiration at the lungs, ∙ phonation at the larynx, and ∙ articulation in the mouth. iii. Write short notes on any two of the following. a.) Speech Disorder Inability to articulate certain words or complete inability to make speech. The causes are hearing loss, neurological disorders, brain injury or mental retardation. b.) Lateralization of the brain The brain is divided into two hemispheres; left hemisphere and right hemisphere. The left hemisphere is the logical brain and the right hemisphere is the creative brain. c.) Articulators (Speech Organs) The articulators produce the sounds of language. They are; ▪ Parts of the tongue ▪ Lips ▪ Teeth ▪ Alveolar ridge ▪ Hard palate ▪ Soft palate ▪ Uvula ▪ Glottis 51 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Brain The brain is one of the largest and most complex organs in the human body. It is made up of more than 100 billion nerves that communicate in trillions of connections called synapses. The brain is made up of many specialized areas that work together: • The cortex is the outermost layer of brain cells. Thinking and voluntary movements begin in the cortex.

The brain stem is between the spinal cord and the rest of the brain. Basic functions like breathing and sleep are controlled here.

The basal ganglia are a cluster of structures in the center of the brain. The basal ganglia coordinate messages between multiple other brain areas.

The cerebellum is at the base and the back of the brain. The cerebellum is responsible for coordination and balance.

52 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya

The brain is also divided into several lobes:

The frontal lobes are responsible for problem solving and judgment and motor function. • The parietal lobes manage sensation, handwriting, and body position.

The temporal lobes are involved with memory and hearing.

The occipital lobes contain the brain's visual processing system.

The brain is surrounded by a layer of tissue called the meninges. The skull (cranium) helps protect the brain from injury. Different areas of the brain are responsible for specialized functions Spinal cord: The brain is connected to the spinal cord, the part of the nervous system ∙ Functions ▪ Relays messages from the brain to the rest of the body. ▪ Transmits information back to the brain. Brainstem: The brain and spinal cord are connected via the brainstem. ∙ Functions ▪ Controls heart rate, respiration, blood pressure, and swallowing Cerebellum: located at the back of the brain ∙ Functions ▪ Coordinates fine movements and helps maintain balance Cerebrum or Cortex: the site of higher brain ∙ Functions ▪ Controls thought and action ▪ The cerebrum comprises several different regions called lobes. Frontal lobe: lobe behind the forehead ∙ Functions ▪ Responsible for personality, motor skills, and problem solving Occipital lobe: at the back of the brain ∙ Functions ▪ Responsible for processing visual input Parietal lobe: lobe at the top and back of the brain ∙ Functions ▪ To process and integrate sensory information Temporal lobes: on the sides of the brain ∙ Functions ▪ Involved in memory and processing language 53 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya HUMAN BRAIN AND LANGUAGE Cortical stimulation mapping A technique used to analyze regions of the brain related to speech on performing brain surgery to treat epilepsy or remove tumors for example, electrical stimulation of speech related areas in the cortex prevents the patient from being able to name things that are shown to them and may also prevent their ability to produce grammatically coherent sentences. When such a site is identified, it is spared, since damaging these areas could cause a temporary or permanent loss of speech. Inner ear damage brain warnings from nerve cells Neural networks established over time as an individual learns and experiences things. Language and speech skills are therefore acquired after birth. The human genome codes for the speech ability that will evolve as the brain is trained SPEECH AND LANGUAGE BRAIN REGIONS ∙ The visual cortex Part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for processing visual information ∙ The auditory cortex In the cerebral cortex processes auditory information as part of the sensory system for hearing performs both basic and higher hearing functions. ∙ Wernicke's area (named after Carl Wernicke, a German neurologist) An area in the cerebral cortex related to speech involved in both spoken and written language ∙ Broca's area (named after Pierre Paul Broca) An area in the frontal lobe of the brain related to the production of speech 54 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya PSYCHOLINGUISTICS / PSYCHOLOGY OF LANGUAGE ▪ Study of the Psychological and Neurobiological factors that enable humans to acquire, use, comprehend and produce language. ▪ Modern research makes use of Biology- Neuroscience-Cognitive Science- Linguistics-and Information Science to study how the brain processes language and less so the known processes of Social Sciences, Human Development, Communication Theories and Infant Development Psycholinguistics in Education and Philosophy covers the cognitive processes that make it possible to generate a grammatical and meaningful sentence out of vocabulary and grammatical structures - the processes that make it possible to understand utterances, words, text, etc. Developmental Psycholinguistics - Studies children's ability to learn language. Areas of study ▪ Language acquisition ▪ Language comprehension ▪ Language production ▪ Second language acquisition Linguistics-related areas ▪ Phonetics and Phonology ▪ Morphology ▪ Syntax ▪ Semantics Language Acquisition ∙ Two schools of thought as to how children acquire or learn language. ∙ All languages must be learned by the child - humans possess an innate language faculty, called universal grammar. Chomsky Children acquiring a language have a vast search space to explore among all possible human grammars yet at the time there was no evidence that children receive sufficient input to learn all the rules of their language. Hence, there must be some other innate mechanism that endows language ability to humans. Language Comprehension How people understand sentences as they read a number of theories about the architecture and mechanisms of sentence comprehension. These theories are concerned with what types of information contained in the sentence the reader can use to build meaning- at what point in reading does that information become available to the reader. Language Production How people produce language, in written or spoken Speech is planned in advance - Lexicon is organized semantically and –morphologically complex words are assembled phonologically 55 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya Computational Modeling The practice of setting up cognitive models in the form of executable computer programs.The human brain is divided into two hemispheres. The left hemisphere is the "logical brain" and is involved in language and analysis and the right hemisphere is the "creative brain," involved in daydreaming and imagination. The left hemisphere controls the right side of the body while the right hemisphere controls the left side. The earliest research on speech and language centers of the brain dates back to the early nineteenth century. Physicians noted that brain-injured patients with damage to the left hemisphere would lose power of speech and language abilities, while those with injuries to the right hemisphere did not lose this ability. Recent studies have shown that in around 97% of people, language is represented in the left hemisphere. However, in about 19% of left-handed people, the areas responsible for language are in the right hemisphere and as many as 68% of them have some language abilities in both the left and the right hemispheres. Determination of language areas A procedure called cortical stimulation mapping is a technique that is used to analyze regions of the brain that are related to speech. On performing brain surgery to treat epilepsy or remove tumors for example, electrical stimulation of speech-related areas in the cortex prevents the patient from being able to name things that are shown to them and may also prevent their ability to produce grammatically coherent sentences. When such a site is indentified, it is spared, since damaging these areas could cause a temporary or permanent loss of speech. Neural networks in the brain Neural networks are established over time as an individual learns and experiences things. Language and speech skills are therefore acquired after birth. The human genome codes for the speech ability that will evolve as the brain is trained. Speech and language brain regions The visual cortex is the part of the cerebral cortex that is responsible for processing visual information. The auditory cortex in the cerebral cortex processes auditory information and as part of the sensory system for hearing performs both basic and higher hearing functions. Second is mechanical intelligence, which is the ability to handle physical objects. Lastly there is social intelligence. This is the ability to handle human interaction, ▪ Learning is incremental. ▪ Learning occurs automatically. ▪ All animals learn the same way. ▪ Law of effect- if an association is followed by a "satisfying state of affairs" it will be strengthened and if it is followed by an "annoying state of affairs" it will be weakened. Thorndike‘s law of exercise has two parts; the law of use and the law of disuse. ▪ Law of use- the more often an association is used the stronger it becomes. ▪ Law of disuse- the longer an association is unused the weaker it becomes. ▪ Law of recency- the most recent response is most likely to reoccur. ▪ Multiple response- problem solving through trial and error. An animal will try multiple responses if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs. ▪ Set or attitude- animals are predisposed to act in a specific way. 56 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya LANGUAGE FOR SPECIAL PURPOSE Language for Specific Purposes (LSP) has been primarily used to refer to two areas within applied linguistics: Focusing on the needs in education and training with a focus on research on language variation across a particular subject field LSP can be used with any target language needed by the learners as a tool for specific purposes, and has often been applied to English (English for Specific Purposes, or ESP). LSP is a widely applied approach to second or foreign language teaching and training that addresses immediate and very specific needs of learners who need that language as a tool in their education, training or job. Needs analysis is the underlying "driver" for the development of LSP programs. For example, English native speaking nurses who work in hospitals with a high percentage patient whose native language is Spanish might have to study Spanish for the very specific purpose of communication between nurses and patients. Students are encouraged to take active roles in their own learning and question what they have been taught. "Language for Specific Purposes" has also been used to refer to a branch of applied linguistics which deals with a variety of language used by members of a particular subject field, concentrating on its genres, stylistic features and technical lexis. This research is relevant for such problem-based areas as language education, translation and the design of specialized dictionaries. Content-based language instruction (CBI) is also sometimes confused with ESP. At the post- secondary level it is frequently used to motivate groups of learners who may be interested in the same professional field, providing meaningful communication opportunities. However, as in their regular studies they are usually not studying through a foreign or second language. They do not need English as a tool in their immediate studies. "Content- based instruction (CBI) is the integration of selected content with language teaching aims". SPEECH MECHANISM Speech Mechanism or Production of speech Language _ is mainly used for linguistic communication. It can be used in two ways. It can be spoken or written. But the medium of speech is more important than the medium of writing. Linguistic is a systematic study of language. Phonetics is a branch of Linguistics and it is branch dealing with the medium of speech. It deals with the production, transmission and reception of the sounds of human speech. What is Speech Mechanism? For the production of speech sounds we need an air-stream. The air that flows out of mouth is modified speech sounds by the action of certain organs. Both egressive and ingressive air stream mechanisms are used for the articulation of speech sounds. The organs of speech Mechanism: - For the production of speech sounds, we need an air stream mechanism and that most sounds of most language in the world are produced with a pulmonic egressive air-stream mechanism. The air that we breathe out comes out of the lungs. Before it gets out into the outer atmosphere, various organs in our body convert it into speech sounds. These organs are called the organ of speech mechanism. The organs of speech can be divided into the following three groups.

The respiratory system

The Phonetary system

The articulatory system

57 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya SPEECH MECHANISM Components of speech production Structure of respiration - our power source to speak. The exhaled air is our energy source for speech. The organs involved in respiration - trachea, rib cage, thorax, abdomen, diaphragm, and lungs.

How it works:

Lungs make air available for speaking forcing the air out, up into our trachea. Structure of resonation makes sound. The organs involved in this structure - larynx, and the vocal cords. The vocal cords are part of the larynx. The vocal cords are the organ responsible for sound.

How it works:

When we talk, the vocal cords open and close rapidly. Air travels up the larynx, causing pressure to build up which causes the vocal cords to be pushed apart. This vibration is responsible for making sound. The larynx also opens and closes to control the flow of air from the lungs. The larynx also closes so that food or liquid do not enter the trachea and lungs. Structure of articulation is responsible for creating different sounds of speech. The joining together of speech organs for production of speech sounds is the articulation. The organs include the lips, teeth, tongue, alveolar ridge, and palate.

How it works:

By moving and shaping these articulators, it enables us to produce different speech sounds. This graph shows the chain of speech communication events. It consists of linking the speaker's brain with the listener's brain. 58 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya COMMUNICATION DISABILITIES [COMMUNICATION DISORDERS] Communication Disorders -Speech / Language Disorders Stuttering, inability to articulate certain words, and auditory processing problems, Sound repetitions such as stuttering to misarticulation of words to complete inability to use speech (aphasia). Some causes of communication disorders ▪ Hearing loss ▪ Neurological disorders ▪ Brain injury ▪ Mental retardation ▪ Drug abuse ▪ Physical impairments such as cleft lip or palate psychiatric disorders ▪ Developmental disorders Speech - produced by coordinated muscle actions in the head, neck, chest, and abdomen Speech Development Gradual process that requires years of practice one learns how to regulate these muscles to produce intelligible speech. Dysfluency - One category of speech disorder Stuttering -most serious dysfluency, disruption in the flow of speech repetitions of speech sounds- hesitations before and during speaking - prolongations of speech sounds. Articulation Difficulties Most numerous of all speech disorders. ("wabbit" for "rabbit"), ("―han" for "hand"), ("sip for ship") Voice Disorders - Difficulties with quality, pitch and loudness of the voice (prosody) Voice - Generated by airflow from the lungs as the vocal folds are brought close together. Language - Expression of human communication through knowledge, beliefs and behavior impairment or deviant development of expression – comprehension stroke, head injury, dementia or brain tumors. Auditory Processing (Hearing) Disorder - central auditory processing disorder (CAPD)- word deafness describes what happens in your brain when it recognizes and interprets the sounds around you Children with APD -often do not recognize subtle differences between sounds in words. 59 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya References – Language Structure Usage & Linguistics study Guide –Final Semester by A.R.Dewanarayana Senior Teacher (Specialized in English Language, Literature and Phonology) Ex-Teacher Advisor (Ampara Educational Zone) https://www.ego4u.com/en/cram-up/grammar/prepositions/ http://www.english-for-students.com/negative-interrogative-form.html https://ell.brainpop.com/level3/unit1/lesson1/summary/ https://www.tutorialbar.com/the-complete-english-grammar-course-perfect-your-english/ https://www.myenglishpages.com/site_php_files/grammar-lesson-phrasal-verb-definition.php?d=455 https://www.englishclub.com/grammar/theory/universal.htm https://grammar.reverso.net/mood/ https://brainly.in/question/12943886 http://perfectyourenglish.com/blog/transformation-of-assertive-sentences https://www.lessons24x7.com/usage/transformation-or-conversion-of-sentences-simple-compound-complex sentences/ https://www.toppr.com/ask/question/convert-compound-sentence-to-simple-sentencehe-feared-that-he-would be-arrested-and-fled/ https://www.medicinenet.com/search/mni/brain https://mayfieldclinic.com/pe-anatbrain.htm 60 Content credits to original creators_ Re-Organized , Edited & Uploaded by Nisal Wanigasuriya